Karl Marx
Entwurf des Vortrags über den Fenianismus im Deutschen

Arbeiterbildungsverein London am 16. Dezember 1867

 I.) Was zeichnet den Fenianismus aus? Er geht in der That v. irischen
Amerikanern, Irländern in Amerika aus. Sie sind die Anreger und leader.
Aber in Irland selbst schlug die Bewegung nur Wurzel (u. hat immer noch
ihren eigentlichen Sitz) in den Volksmassen, den lower orders. Das charakterisirt sie. In allen früheren irischen Bewegungen folgte das Volk nur
der Leitung v. Aristokraten od. middle classmen u. stets den kath.
Pfaffen. Bei der Erhebung gegen Cromwell anglo-irische Häuptlinge u.
Pfaffen; bei dem Krieg gegen William III sogar dem König v. England
Jacob II an der Spitze, in der Revolution v. 1798 protestantische Republikaner v. Ulster (Wolfe Tone, Lord Fitzgerald), endlich in diesem Jahrhundert dem bourgeois O'Connell gestützt auf die kath. Geistlichkeit, die
auch in allen früheren Bewegungen, mit Ausnahme v. 1798 leitende Rolle
spielt. Der Fenianism v. der kath. Geistlichkeit in Bann gethan. Sie hat
erst ihren Widerstand aufgegeben, seit sie durch denselben allen Einfluß
auf die irische Volksmasse zu verlieren fürchtete.

II.) Was die Engländer wundert ist dieß: Verglichen mit der früheren
Unterdrückung Irlands durch England finden sie das jetzige Regime desselben mild. Woher grade jetzt diese entschiedenste u. unversöhnlichste
Form des Gegensatzes? Was ich zeigen will, u. was selbst den Engländern
ein Geheimniß ist, die Partei für die irische Nationalität u. das Recht
ihrer Lossagung v. England ergreifen, ist, daß seit 1846, die, obgleich der
Form nach weniger barbarisch, der Sache nach vernichtend ist u. keinen
andern Ausweg erlaubt: als freiwillige Emancipation Irlands durch England oder Kampf auf Leben od. Tod.

III.) Was die vergangene Geschichte angeht, so facts in jedem Geschichtsbuch zu finden. Ich werde daher nur einige Andeutungen geben,
soweit nöthig den Unterschied der jetzigen Epoche v. der früheren klar
zu machen, u. zweitens einige Punkte hervorzuheben bezüglich des Charakters dessen, was jezt das irische Volk heißt.

a) Die Engländer in Irland vor der protestantischen Reformation.

1172. Henry II. Erobert noch nicht 73 v. Irland. Nominal conquest.
Geschenk des Papst Hadrian IV. (Engländers). Ungefähr 300 Jahre später andrer Papst (unter Elisabeth) (1576) - Gregor XIII nimmt den Englandern (Elisabeth) wieder den Kram ab. The "English Pale". Capital:
Dublin. Vermischung der englischen Common Colonists mit den Iren, der
Anglo-Normannischen Grossen mit den irischen Häuptlingen. Sonst den
Eroberungskrieg geführt, wie gegen die red Indians (ursprünglich). Bis
1565 (Elisabeth) keine englische Verstärkungen nach Irland geschickt.

b) Protestant epoch. Elisabeth. James I. Charles! Cromwell.
Kolonisationsplan (16. 17. Jahrhundert)

Elisabeth Der Plan war Iren auszurotten, wenigstens bis river Shannon, u. an seine Stelle englische Colonisten zu setzen, ihnen das land
abzunehmen etc. In den Kämpfen gegen die Elisabeth fochten die katholisch gebliebenen Anglo-Irish mit den natives gegen die Englander.
Der eingestandne Plan der letztern:

Clearing the island of the natives and stocking it with loyal Englishmen.
They succeeded only to plant a landowning aristocracy. English Protestant "adventurers" (merchants, usurers), who obtained from the English
crown the confiscated lands, and "gentlemen undertakers" who were to
plant the ceded states with native English families.

James I. Ulster. (Jacobite plantation. 1609-12.) British undertakers,
"to stock the confiscated, stolen lands with Irish." Seit 1613 werden erst
die Irish als Engl, subjects betrachtet, bis dahin als „outlaws" u. „enemies" u. Irish Parliament regierte nur innerhalb des Pale. Damit Verfolgung gegen die Katholiken.

Elisabeth settled Munster, James I Ulster, but Leinster u. Connaught
have not yet been purged. Charles I tried to purge Connaught.

Cromwell: First national revolt of Ireland, its 2" complete Conquest,

Partial Re-colonisation. (1641-60).

Irish Revolution of 1641. August 1649 Cromwell landing in Dublin.
(Nach ihm Ireton, Lambert, Fleetwod; Henry Cromwell).

In 1652 the 2 “complete conquest of Ireland completed. Division of spoil:
the Government itself the "Adventurers" who had lent £ 360,000 for the
11 years of war, the officers and soldiers, by the Acts of the English
Parliament 4 Aug. 1652 and 26 Sept. 1653. Smite the Amalekites of the
Irish Nation hip and thigh, and replant the re-devasteted land with new
colonies of brand new Puritan English. - Blutvergießen, Verwüstung,
Entvölkerung ganzer Grafschaften, Versetzung ihrer Bewohner in andere
Gegenden, Verkauf vieler Iren als Sklaven nach den westindischen Inseln. I

 Durch die irische Eroberung wirft Cromwell die englische Republik
über [den] Haufen.

Seit der Zeit Mißtrauen der Iren gegen die englische Volkspartei,

c) Restauration of the Stuarts. William III. Second Irish revolt, and the
Capitulation on Terms. 1660-1692. (1701) (Anne.)

Damals die British am zahlreichsten in Irland. Never higher than
/n, never lower than :/n of the Irish population.

1684. Charles II begins to favour the Catholic interest of Ireland, and
to enlist a Catholic Army.

1685. James II gives full rein to the Catholics of Ireland. Catholic army
increased and favoured. The Catholics soon began to declare that the
Acts of Settlement must be repealed and the proprietors of 1641 re-established. James calls some Irish regiments to England.

1689. William III in Engld. 12 March 1689: James landed at Kinsale at
the head of Irish soldiers. Limerick capitulates to William III, 1691.
Shameful violation of the treaty, already under William III, still more
under Anne.

d) Ireland defrauded and humbled to the dust. 1692-July 4 1 776.

a) All notions of "planting" the country with English and Scotch yeomen or tenant farmers were discarded. Versuch German and French
protestants anzusiedeln. French protestants in the towns (woollen manufacturers) vertrieben durch das English protectionist and mercantile system.

1694. The Anglo-Irish Parliament, (like obedient colonists) passed, on
the command of the mother country, a prohibitory tax of Irish woollen
goods export to foreign countries.

1694. In the same year, the English Parliament laid [a] heavy tax on the
import of the home manufactures in England and Wales, and absolutely
prohibited their export to other countries. She stroke down the manufactures of Ireland, depopulated her cities, and threw the people back upon
the land.

The Williamite (imported Lords) absentees. Cry against absentee landlords since 1692.

Ebenso legislation of Engld against Irish Cattle.

1698: Molyneuxpamphlet f. die independence des Irish parliament (i.e.
der English Colony in Ireland) against the English. Thus began the Struggle of the English Colony in Ireland and the English Nation. Gleichzeitig
struggle between the Anglo-Irish Colony and the Irish Nation. William III
resisted the shameful attempts of the English and Anglo-Irish Parliaments
to violate the treaties of Limerick and Galway.

ß) Queen Anne. (1701-13 - George bis 1776.)

Penal Code built up by the Anglo-Irish Parliament with assent of the
English Pari. Most infamous means to make Protestant Proselytes
amongst the Irish catholics by regulations of "Property". A code for the
transfer of "Property" from Catholics to Protestants, or to make "Anglicanism" a proprietary title (Education. Personal disabilities.) (No Catholic able to be a private soldier.) To teach the Catholic Religion was a
transportable felony, to convert a Protestant to Catholicism an act of
treason. To be a Catholic Archbishop banishment, if returning from banishment act of high treason; hanged, disembowelled alive, and afterwards
quartered. |

 Experiment to coerce the mass of the Irish nation into the Anglican
religion. Catholics deprived of vote for members of Parliament.

This Penal Code intensified the hold of the Catholic Priesthood upon the
Irish people.

The poor people fell into habits of indolence.

During the palmy days of Protestant ascendancy and Catholic degradation, the Protestants did not encroach upon the Catholics in numbers.

e) 1776-1801. Uebergangszeit.

a) Eh wir zu dieser Uebergangsperiode kommen, was das Resultat des
English Terrorism?

English incomers absorbed into the Irish people and catholicised.

The towns founded by the English Irish.

No English colony (except Ulster Scotch) but English landowners.

The North American Revolution forms the first turning point in Irish
history.

ß) 1777 the British army surrendered at Saratoga Springs to the American "rebels". British cabinet forced to make concessions to the Nationalist
(English) party in Ireland.

1 778 Roman Catholic Relief Bill (passed by the Anglo-Irish Parliament)
(Catholics were still excluded from acquiring by purchase, or as tenants,
any freeholds interest.)

1779 freetrade with Great Britain. Almost all restraints put upon lrish
industry swept away.

1782 The Penal Code still further released. The Roman Catholics allowed to acquire freehold property for lives, or in fee simple, and - to open
schools.

1783 Equal rights of the Anglo-Irish Parliament.

Winter 1792-93: After the French Government had annexed Belgium,
and England resolved upon French war, another portion of the Penal
Code was released. Irish could become Colonels in Army, elective franchise for Irish Parliament etc.

Rebellion of 1798. Belfast Republicans. (Wolf Tone, Lord Fitzgerald)
Irish Peasants not ripe.

Anglo-Irish House of Commons voted for the Act of Union passed in
1800. By the Legislature and Customs Union of Britain and Ireland
closed the struggle between the Anglo-Irish and the English. The colony
itself protested against the illegal act of Union. |

 1801-1846.

a) 1801-1831. Während dieser Zeit (nach Ende des Kriegs) den Iren
mit England gemein die Bewegung für katholische Emancipation. (1829)

Seit 1783, legislative Independenz v. Irland, shortly after which duties
were imposed on various articles of foreign manufacture, avowedly with
the intention of enabling some of her people to employ some of their
surplus labour etc.

The natural consequence was, that Irish manufactures gradually disappeared as the Act of Union came into effect.

Dublin. 1800 Master woollen manufacturers . 91 1840 … 2
Hands employed … 4918 602

Master woolcombers ... 30 1834 5

Hands employed ... 230 66

Carpet manufacturers ... 13 1841 1

Hands employed .... 720 0

Silk loomweavers at work ... 2500 1840 ...250

Kilkenny 1800: Blanket manufacturers ... 56 1822... 42
Hands employed .... 3000 1822: 925

Balbriggan 1799: Calikolooms at work ... 2500 1841: 226
Wicklow 1800: Handlooms at work ... 1000 .... 1841 0
Cork: 1800: Braidweavers..... 1000 …. 1834: 40
"Worsted Weavers ... 2000 90

Hoosiers .... 300 if 28

" Woolcombers ... 700 110
Cottonweavers ... 2000 220

etc. Die Leinenindustrie (Ulster) keine Kompensation.

"The cotton manufacture of Dublin, which employed 14,000 operatives,
has been destroyed; the 3400 silklooms have been destroyed; the serge
(Sersche) manufacture, which employed 1491 operatives, have been destroyed; the flannel manufacture of Rathdrum, the blanket manufacture
of Kilkenny, the camlet (Camelot) trade of Bandon, the worsted manufactures of Waterford, the ratteen and frieze manufactures of Carrickon-Suir have been destroyed. One business alone survives! ... That fortunate business—which the Union Act has not struck down-that
favoured, and privileged, and patronised business is the Irish coffinmaker's."

(Speech o/T.F. Meagher, 1847)

So oft Irland also auf dem Punkt sich industriell zu entwickeln,
crushed u. in bios agricultural land zurückverwandelt.

Nach dem letzteren General Census v. 1861:
Agricultural Population of Ireland (including all cottiers

and farm labourers with their families) ... 4,286,019
In den 798 towns (wovon viele in der That
blosse Marktnecken) ... 1,512,948

+ 5,978,967

Also ungefähr (1861) /s rein agrikol, in der That vielleicht h, wenn die
Landstädte mitgezählt. |

 Da also Irland rein agricultural: "Land is life." (Justice Blackburn).
Land became the great object of pursuit. The people had now before
them the choice between the occupation of land, at any rent, or starvation. System of rackrenting. "The lord of the land was thus enabled to
dictate his own terms, and therefore it has been that we have heard ofthe
payment of 5, 6, 8, and even as much as 10 /. per acre." "Enormous rents,
low wages, farms of an enormous extent, let by rapacious and indolent
proprietors to monopolising land-jobbers, to be relet by intermediate oppressors, for five times their value, among the wretched starvers on potatoes and water." State of popular starvation.

Korngesetze in England geben Monopol bis zu a certain extent für den
Export v. Irish corn nach England. The average export of grain
in the first 3 years following the passage of the Act of Union about 300,000 qrs.

1820 über 1 million qrs.

1834 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . yearly average v. 2 4i millions qrs.

Amount to pay rent to absentes, and interest to mortgagees, (1834)
über 30 millions dollars (an 7 Mill. £ St.). Middlemen accumulated fortunes that they would not invest in the improvement of land, and could
not, under the system which prostrated manufactures, invest in machinery etc. All their accumulations were sent therefore to England for investment. An official document published by the British Government
shows that the transfers of Brit, securities from England to Ireland, i.e.,
the investment of Irish capital in England, in the 13 years following the
adoption of free trade in 1821, amounted to as many millions of £ St.;
and thus was Ireland forced to contribute cheap labor and cheap capital
to building up "the great works of Britain".

Viel Schweine u. Export derselben.

1831-1841 Zuwachs der Bevölkerung Irlands v. 7,767,401 auf 8,175,238.
in den 10 years 407,837.
während derselben Zeit Emigration: 450,873 (etwas
über 40,000 per year)
858,710.

O'Connell. Repeal Movement. Lichfield House Contract mit Whigs.
Partial famines. Insurrection Acts, Arms Acts, Coercion Acts.

IV.) Die Periode der letzten 20 Jahre (v. 1846 an). Clearing of the
Estate of Ireland.

Früher repeated cases of partial famine. Jetzt general.

Diese neue Periode wird eingeleitet durch die Kartoffelkrankheit
(1846-1847), die Hungersnoth u. den darauf folgenden Exodus.

Crepirt über 1 Million theils direkt am Hungertod, theils in Folge v.
diseases etc. (durch den Hunger). Es wanderten in den 9 Jahren 1847-55
aus 1,656,044. i

Die Umwälzung des alten Agricultur Systems erst natürliche Folge der
brachliegenden Felder. Fliehende Menschen. (Die families clubbed together to send away the youngest and most enterprising). Daher natürlich Zusammenwerfen der kleinen Pachten u. Verdrangung v. Ackerbau
durch Viehweiden.

Aber es kamen bald Umstände hinzu, wodurch dieß in bewußtes u.
planmäßig befolgtes System | verwandelt.

Erstens: Hauptmoment: Eine der unmittelbaren Folgen der irischen
Catastrophe war die Abschaffung der Korngesetze. Damit verlor das
irische Getreide sein Monopol des englischen Markts in gewöhnlichen
Jahren. Fallen der Getreidepreise. Unmöglichkeit die Renten zu zahlen.
Gleichzeitig fortwährendes Steigen in den letzten 20 Jahren der Fleischpreise, Wolle u. andrer tierischer / animalischer Produkte. Ungeheurer
Aufschwung der Wollindustrie in England. Schweinezucht hing zum
Theil mit dem alten System zusammen. Jetzt bes. Schafe u. Hornvieh.
Deprived of the English market now, as by the Act of Union of her own.

Als Nebenumstände, welche dieß systematisch zu machen beitrugen:

Zweitens: Umwandlung der Agrikultur in England. Karikatur davon
in Irland.

Drittens: Die verzweifelte Flucht der starving Irländer nach England
füllten in Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow Keller, Spelunken, workhouses mit men, women, children in a state almost of starvation.

Parlamentsakt passirt, (184718), daß die irischen Landlords had to
support their own paupers. (Englisches Paupergesetz auf Irland ausgedehnt.) Daher (nähmlich England) Sucht der zum grossen Theil sehr

verschuldeten Irish landlords to get rid of the people, and clear their
estate.
Viertens: Encumbered Estates Act (= 1853?) "The landlord was ruined,
for he could collect no rents, and he was at the same time liable for the
payment of enormous taxes for the maintenance of his poor neighbours.
His land was encumbered with mortgages and settlements, created when
food was high, and he could pay no interest; and now a law was passed,
by aid of which property could be summarily disposed of at a public sale,
and the proceeds distributed among those who had legal claims upon it."
Absentee Proprietors (Englische Kapitalisten, Insurance societies etc. dadurch vermehrt, ebenso frühere middlemen etc., die modern ökonomisch
wirtschaften wollten.)
Die Verdrängung der farmer theils gütliche Kündigung. Aber noch
mehr eviction im Grossen (Gewaltsam, crowbar brigade, Brecheisenbri-
gade (beginnt mit Vernichtung des Dachs), gewaltsame Ejection. (Auch
als polit. Strafmittel) Dieß dauert fort v. 1847 bis jezt. (Abercorn, Viceroy
v. Irland) Afrikanische Razzias. (Razzias of the little African Kings.)
(People driven from the land. The starving population of the towns largely increased.) "The tenantry are turned out of the cottages by scores at a
time ... Land agents direct the operation. The work is done by a large
force of police and soldiery. Under the protection of the latter, the Crowbar Brigade advances to the devoted township, takes possession of the
houses ... The sun that rose on a village sets on a desert." (Galway Paper
1852.) (Abercorn.)
Zunächst wollen wir sehn, wie das System auf den Boden wirkt, in
Irland, wo die Verhältnisse ganz andre als in England.
Abnahme bebauter Ländereien. 1861-1866.

Decrease in cereal crops. Decrease in green crops.
1861-65 428,041 Acres 1861-65: 107,984 acres
1866 42,876 1866: 20,077
zus. 460,917 128,061. |

 Abnahme des yield per Statute Acre of every crop.
1847-1865 per cent: the exact decrease: oats 16.3, jlax 47.9, turnips
36.1, potatoes: 50. Some years would show a greater decrease, but on the
whole it has been gradual since 1847.

Estimated average Produce per Statute Acre:

Wheat. Potatoes. Flax.

cwts. tons stones. 14 lbs.
1851 12.5 5.1 38.6
1866 11.3 2.9 24.9

Während Irland sonst viel Weizen ausführte, jezt erklärt es sei nur
noch gut um Hafer (oats) zu bauen. (Der auch fortwährend, Ertrag per
acre, abnimmt.)

In der That: 7566 führte Irland nur 13,250 qrs Weizen aus, dagegen
48,589 qrs davon ein (also beinahe das Vierfache) dagegen führte es aus
ungefähr 1 Million qrs Hafer (f. 1,20i,737 £ St.)

Since the exodus, the land has been underfed and overworked, partly
from the injudicious consolidation of farms, and partly because, under
the cornacre system, the farmer in a great messure trusted to his labour-

ers to manure the land for him. Rents and profits (where the farmer is no 10

peasant farmer) may increase, although the produce of the soil decreases.
The total produce may diminish, and still greater part of it be converted
into surplus produce, falling to the landlord and (great) farmer. And the
price of the surplus produce has risen.

Also Sterilisation (graduelle) des Landes, wie das Sicilien durch altes
Rom. (ditto Aegypten).

Auf das Vieh kommen wir gleich zu sprechen. Aber erst die Bevölkerung.

Abnahme der Population.

1801: 5,319,867. 1841: 8,222,664. 1851: 6,515,974. 1861: 5,764,543.
Wenn derselbe Fortschritt 7577 werden sein 5,300,000, also weniger als
1801. Ich werde aber gleich zeigen, daß 1871 die Zahl geringer sein würde, selbst wenn die Rate der Emigration constant bliebe.

Die Emigration.

Diese accounts natürlich für Theil der Abnahme, Irish v. 1845-66 wanderten aus 1,990,244, also ungefähr 2 Millionen. (Unerhört.) (Ungefähr
/s der Total Emigration from United Kingdom 1845-1866: nämlich:
4,657,588. V. 1831—41 | war die Emigration ungefähr = 'h des Zuwachses der Bevölkerung während des Decenniums. Seit 1847 ist sie bedeutend
größer als der Zuwachs.

Indes die Emigration allein does not account for the decrease of the
population since 1847.

Abnahme des natürlichen jährlichen Zuwachses der Bevölkerung.

Dieser Zuwachs (jährliche) 1831-1841 1.10 p.c., also about 1 7m p.c.
jährlich. Wenn die Bevölkerung in derselben Proportion gewachsen
1841-51, so 1851 = 9,074,514. War aber nur: 6,515,794. Also Deficit von
2,558,720. Davon accounted for by emigration für 1,274,213. Bleiben zu
berechnen 1,284,507. Ueber 1 Million krepirt am famine. Aber nicht das
ganze Deficit v. 1,274,213. Also offenbar der natürliche Bevölkerungszuwachs v. 1841-1851 vermindert.

Dieß wird bestätigt durch Betrachtung des Decenniums 1851-1861.
Kein famine. Die Bevölkerung fiel v. 6,515,794 auf 5,764,543. Absolute
Abnahme: 751,251. Aber Emigration während dieser Zeit über 1,210,000.
Also Zuwachs v. nearly 460,000 während der 10 Jahre. Nämlich 751,251

+ 460,000 = die Zahl der Auswanderer = 1,211,251. Die Emigration
nahm beinahe das 3fache des Zuwachses weg. Die Rate desselben = 70
(/ioo) p.c. per Jahr, also bedeutend abgenommen gegen die 1.10 v.
1831-41.

Die Sache erklärt sich sehr einfach. The increase of a population by

births must principally depend on the proportion which those between 20
and 35 bear to the rest ofthe community. Now the proportion of persons
between the ages of 20 and 35 in the population of the United Kingdom
is about 1 : 3.98 or 25.06 p.c., while their proportion in the emigration
even of the present day is about 1 : 1.89 or 52.76 p.c. In Irland wahr-

scheinlich noch größer.

Physische Verschlechterung der Bevölkerung.

In 1806, with a total population of 5,574,107, there was an excess of
females over males by 50,469, whilst in 1867, with a total population of
5,557,196, there is an excess of the females over males. Zugleich nicht nur

relativer, sondern absoluter Zuwachs of deafmute (Taubstummen), blind,
insane, idiotic, and decrepit inhabitants. Contrasting 1851 with 1861,
whilst the population had decreased enormously, the number of deafmutes had increased by 473, on their former total of 5,180; the lame and
decrepit by 225, on their former total of 4,375; the blind by 1,092, on

their former total of 5,767; the lunatic and idiotic, by the immense number of 4,118, on their former total of 9,980; mounting up, in 1861, notwithstanding the decrease in the population, to 14,098. |

 Wages.

Wages have not risen more than 20% since the potato famine. The

price of potatoes has risen nearly 200 %; 100 % der rise der nöthigen
Lebens/Nahrungs/mittel Kohlen etc. on an average.

Prof. Cliff Leslie, in the Economist oj Feb. 9, 1867 says: "After a loss of
*h of the population in 21 years, throughout most of the island, the rate
of wages is now only Is. a day; a shilling does not go further than 6d. did

21 years ago." "Owing to this rise in the ordinary food the labourer is
worse off than he was 10 years ago."

Partial famines, bes. in Munster u. Connaught.

Bankerott der shopkeeper permanent. Verfall der Landstädte etc.

Facit des Prozesses:

V. 1855-66: 1,032,694 Irländer'ersezt durch 996,859 Livestock (Horn-

vieh, Schafe u. Schweine). Dieß nämlich der Zuwachs an Livestock wäh-

rend dieser Zeit, wenn v. dem Decrease of Horses während dieser Zeit
(20,656) durch 4 Schafe compensirt, diese also vom Zuwachs abgezogen
worden.

Consolidation of farms.

V. 1851-1861: total decrease v. farms 120,000. (Die Zahl der farms v.
15-30 acres, u. der v. 30 wuchs) Traf also besonders farms v. unter 1 -
unter 15 acres.

Nun 1861 (das Gesamtareal Irlands = 20,319,924 Acres), davon ungefähr /s des Areals 12 Mill. Acres mit 569,844 Pächter unter 1 - unter 100
acres,

about /s (8 Mill. Acres) Pachten über 100 u. 500 acres (31,927 Pächter).

Der Prozeß im schönsten Fortgang: Ulster. (Flachsbau, schott. protestant. Pächter.)

Times etc. Zu diesem System gratulirt Abercorn officiell as Viceroy.
Selbst einer dieser devastators. Lord Dufferin: Ueberbevölkerung etc.

So Frage of Leben u. Tod.

Meagher, Hennessay, Irishman.

1101 Abnahme der Verbrechen in Irland,

Committed for tridl. Convicted.
1852: 17,678 10,454
1866: 4,326 2,418.

V.) United States u. Fenianism.