Reformation— Lutheran and Calvinist—bourgeoisie’s revolution 
No. 1, in which Peasant War is the critical episode. Dissolution of 
feudalism, along with the development of towns, both decentralis- 
ing, absolute monarchy therefore a virtual necessity for holding 
together the nationalities. Had to be absolute, precisely because of 
the centrifugal nature of all the elements. Absolute not to be 
understood in the vulgar sense, however: constantly at odds partly 
with the Estates, partly with rebellious feudal lords and towns; the 
Estates nowhere abolished; thus better described as an Estate 
monarchy (still feudal, decaying feudal and embryonic bourgeois). 


Victory of revolution No. 1, which was much more European 
than the English one, and became European much more quickly 
than the French one, in Switzerland, Holland, Scotland, Eng- 
land—to a certain extent in Sweden, too, already [under] 
G[ustavus] Vasa, and Denmark, here not until 1660 in orthodox, 
absolutist form. 


I.* Causes in’ Germany. History from beginning. Germany 
broken after the heroic age of the migration of peoples. Only 
restored from France, by Charlemagne. Hence Roman empire 


4 In the manuscript the text marked “I” by Engels is placed after that marked 
“I1”.— Ed. 


On the Peasant War 555 


idea. Renewed by Otto. More non-Germans than Germans. Ruin 
of Germany by this policy—of pillaging the Italian cities—under 
the Hohenstaufens. Thus fragmentation confirmed — excepto casu 
revolutionis. Development from interregnum* to 15th century. 
Rise of the towns. Decay of feudalism never perfected in Germany 
under pressure from the princes (the emperor as sovereign 
against, as emperor for the imperial knights). Gradual emancipa- 
tion of the peasants, until setback in 15th century. Germany 
materially on a par with the other countries of the day.— Crucial 
that in Germany because of provincial fragmentation and long-term 
freedom from invasion the need for national unity not so strong as in 
France (the Hundred Years’ War), Spain, which had just been 
reconquered from the Moors, Russia, which had just driven out the 
Tatars, England (Wars of the Roses),*©? and that even the emperors 
of the day so shabby. 

II. With the Renaissance in its European guise based on general 
decay of feudalism and rise of the towns. Then absolutist national 
monarchies—everywhere except in Germany and Italy. 

III. Character of the Reformation as sole possible, popular 
expression of universal aspirations, etc.