From the end of the Han dynasty to the present, over a thousand years have passed. The circumstances are as different as heaven and earth. Yet from certain perspectives—for example, the utter poverty and blank slate of the poor peasants and lower-middle peasants—there are still some similarities. The Yellow Turban movement at the end of the Han dynasty was enormous in scale; that was the Way of Great Peace. In the south, there was a mass movement led by Yu Ji, also Daoist in nature. In the west (the region centered on Hanzhong, covering southern Shaanxi and northern Sichuan), there was the Way of Five Pecks of Rice. Historical records state that the Way of Five Pecks of Rice and the Way of Great Peace were "largely similar," movements following the same line. It is further recorded that Zhang Lu and his line, spanning three generations, practiced the Way of Five Pecks of Rice, and "the common people and ethnic minorities found it convenient and took pleasure in it." This shows it was highly welcomed by the masses. Believers contributed five pecks of rice, treated illnesses through divine methods, set up charity lodgings (public dormitories along major roads) where meals were free (the aim apparently being to attract refugees from the Guanzhong region), and repaired roads (with those committing minor offenses doing the work). "Offenders were pardoned three times before punishment was applied" (with persuasion as the main method). "No senior officials were appointed; governance was carried out entirely through libationers." The libationers "each led their own followers, and those with many followers became governing-head libationers" (this approximated the integration of government and commune, and the combination of labor and military effort, but rested on a small-peasant economy). These several points constituted the economic and political program of the Way of Five Pecks of Rice. From the mass uprising of Chen She at Dazexiang (near Xuzhou) at the end of the Qin dynasty to the Boxer movement at the end of the Qing dynasty, large-scale peasant revolutionary movements in China scarcely ever ceased over two thousand years. Like the whole world, China's history is a history of class struggle.

Appendix:

Zhang Lu, styled Gongqi, was a man of Feng in Pei. His grandfather, Ling, sojourned in Shu and studied the Dao in the Calling Crane Mountains. He composed Daoist books to delude the common people. Those who followed and received the teachings contributed five pecks of rice; hence the world called them rice bandits. When Ling died, his son Heng continued his teachings. When Heng died, Lu carried them on in turn. The Governor of Yizhou, Liu Yan, appointed Lu as Supervisory Righteous Colonel, and together with Separate Division Colonel Zhang Xiu, he led troops to attack the Grand Administrator of Hanzhong, Su Gu. Lu then attacked Xiu by surprise, killed him, and seized his forces. When Yan died, his son Zhang succeeded him. Because Lu did not submit, Zhang killed all of Lu's mother's family and household. Lu thereupon occupied Hanzhong and taught the people the way of the ghosts and spirits. He styled himself "Master of Teachers." Those who came to study the teachings were at first all called ghost soldiers. Once they accepted and believed in the basic way, they were called libationers. Each led their own followers, and those with many followers became governing-head libationers. All were taught to be sincere and trustworthy, not to deceive, and when ill to confess their faults. It was largely similar to the Yellow Turbans. The various libationers all established charity lodgings, like the postal relay stations of the time. They also set out charity rice and meat, suspended in the charity lodgings. Travelers took enough according to their appetite. If one took too much, the ghost way would afflict them with sickness. Offenders were pardoned three times before punishment was carried out. No senior officials were appointed; governance was conducted entirely through libationers. The common people and ethnic minorities found it convenient and took pleasure in it. He dominated Ba and Han for nearly thirty years. (The Dianlüe says: During the Xiping reign, great numbers of demonic bandits arose; in the Sanfu region there was Luo Yao. During the Guanghe reign, in the east there was Zhang Jue, and in Hanzhong there was Zhang Xiu. Luo Yao taught the people the method of hiding and disappearing; Jue practiced the Way of Great Peace; Xiu practiced the Way of Five Pecks of Rice. In the Way of Great Peace, the master carried a nine-section staff, made talismans and invocations, and instructed the sick to kowtow and reflect on their faults, then gave them talisman water to drink. If the illness was brief and the patient recovered, it was said the person had faith in the way; if recovery did not follow, it was deemed lack of faith. Xiu's methods were roughly the same as Jue's, with the addition of quiet chambers, placing the sick inside to reflect on their faults. He also appointed people as "treachery-command libationers." The libationers were responsible for the Laozi in five thousand characters, making everyone study it, calling it the treachery command, and using ghost clerks to take charge of praying for the sick. The method of prayer and invocation: they wrote the sick person's name and a statement of confessing sins, making three copies. One was sent up to heaven, placed on a mountain; one was buried in the earth; one was sunk in water. These were called the Three Officers' handwritten letters. They required the sick person's family to contribute five pecks of rice as a regular practice, hence the name "Master of Five Pecks of Rice." It was actually of no help in treating illness, being merely excessive and deceitful. Yet the ignorant petty folk all rushed to serve it. Later, Jue was executed and Xiu also perished. When Lu was in Hanzhong, following the people's faith in Xiu's practices, he extended and embellished them. He instructed the construction of charity lodgings, placing rice and meat inside to sustain travelers. He also taught them to conceal their faults; those with minor offenses were to repair a hundred paces of road, whereupon the offense was absolved. Further, in accordance with the monthly ordinances, killing was forbidden in spring and summer, and liquor was prohibited. Refugees who moved into his territory dared not but obey these rules. Your servant Songzhi holds that Zhang Xiu should be Zhang Heng; either the Dianlüe made an error, or a copying mistake occurred.) At the end of the Han, the central power could not subdue him by force, and so they contented themselves with honoring Lu as General Calming the People, concurrently serving as Grand Administrator of Hanning, merely receiving tribute from him. Some of the people found a jade seal in the earth, and his followers wished to honor Lu as King of Hanning. Lu's merit evaluator, Yan Pu of Baxi, remonstrated with Lu, saying: "The households of Hanzhong number over a hundred thousand; its wealth and lands are fertile, and on all sides it is perilous and secure. If you uphold the Son of Heaven above, you may become a protector like Duke Huan or Duke Wen; at the second rank, like Dou Rong, you would still retain noble wealth. Now, exercising authority and making appointments, your power is sufficient to render judgments independently; there is no need for kingship. I beg you to refrain from assuming the title for now—do not be the first to invite disaster." Lu followed his advice. During the chaos of Han Sui and Ma Chao, tens of thousands of families from west of the passes fled to him via the Ziwu Valley. In the twentieth year of Jian'an, the Grand Progenitor personally went out from San Pass and advanced via Wudu to campaign against him. Upon reaching Yangping Pass, Lu wished to bring Hanzhong into submission and surrender. His younger brother Wei refused and led a force of tens of thousands to defend the pass resolutely. The Grand Progenitor attacked and defeated him, then entered Shu. (In the Memorials of Famous Officials of Wei, Dong Zhao's memorial is recorded, stating: "Emperor Wu, receiving the words of the Liangzhou Attendant Clerk and those who surrendered from Wudu, said Zhang Lu would be easy to attack. Beneath Yangping City, the mountains to north and south were far apart, and it could not be defended. He believed this to be true. But when he went and observed personally, it was not as he had heard. He thereupon sighed and said: 'The assessments of others seldom satisfy a man's mind.' He attacked the various encampments on the Yangping mountains, but they could not be taken quickly, and many soldiers were wounded or killed. Emperor Wu's resolution flagged, and he wished to pull back the army, turning back around the mountains. He sent the late General-in-Chief Xiahou Dun and General Xu Chu to recall the troops in the mountains. Before the entire army had returned, that night they became lost in the dark and mistakenly entered the bandit camp, whereupon the bandits retreated and scattered. Attendants Xin Pi and Liu Ye and others, who were at the rear of the troops, told Dun and Chu that the imperial troops had already seized the bandits' key encampment and the bandits had scattered and fled. They still did not believe them. Dun went forward to see for himself, then returned and reported to Emperor Wu, and they advanced and secured the position—fortunately resulting in a capture. This is recent history, known to the officials and soldiers." Also, Yang Ji's memorial states: "When Emperor Wu first campaigned against Zhang Lu, with a host of a hundred thousand, he personally went and observed, giving instructions on strategy and tactics, and relied on the people's wheat for army provisions. Zhang Wei's defense was hardly worth mentioning. The terrain was perilous and defending it easy; though they had crack troops and tiger-like generals, their strength could not be deployed. After facing the enemy for three days, he intended to pull the army back. (Zhang Lu or Zhang Wei) said: 'I have led armies for thirty years; how could I hand everything over to another in a single morning?' This plan was already decided. Heaven blessed the great Wei, and Lu's defenses crumbled of themselves, and thus it was settled." The Shiyu says: Lu sent an officer of the Five Offices to surrender. His brother Wei built Yangping City across the mountains to resist, and the royal army could not advance. Lu fled to Bazhong. With army provisions exhausted, the Grand Progenitor prepared to return. Guo Chen, a clerk in the Western Bureau from Dong Commandery, said: "This cannot be. Lu has already surrendered; we have sent an envoy who has not yet returned. Though Wei does not concur, his partial force can be attacked. The army is deep in the field; if we advance, we will certainly conquer; if we retreat, we will certainly not escape." The Grand Progenitor doubted. That night, several thousand wild elk suddenly broke through Wei's camp. Zhang Wei's army was thrown into great alarm. At night, Gao Zuo and others from the Wei forces mistakenly encountered Wei's troops. Zuo and his men sounded their drums and horns to muster the crowd; Wei, terrified, thinking the great army had arrived to overwhelm him, surrendered. When Lu heard that Yangping had fallen, he prepared to bow his head in submission. Pu again said: "If you go now under duress, your merit will surely be slight. It would be better to rely on Du Huo and head to Pu Hu to resist, and then offer your allegiance; your merit will surely be greater." Thereupon, Lu fled to the southern mountains and entered Bazhong. His attendants wished to burn all the treasuries, valuables, and storehouses. Lu said: "My original intent was to submit to the state, but my wish has not yet been conveyed. Now I am fleeing to avoid the sharp edge of their blades; I bear no ill intent. The treasuries, valuables, and storehouses belong to the state." He thus sealed them up and departed. When the Grand Progenitor entered Nanzheng, he greatly praised this. Because Lu had originally had good intentions, he sent someone to comfort and reassure him. Lu brought his entire household out. The Grand Progenitor thereupon appointed Lu as General Calming the South, received him with the courtesy due a guest, and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Langzhong, with a fief of ten thousand households. He enfeoffed Lu's five sons and Yan Pu and others, all as full marquises. (Your servant Songzhi holds that although Zhang Lu had good intentions, in the end he surrendered only after being defeated. To honor him now with ten thousand households and enfeoff all five sons as marquises was excessive. Xi Zuochi said: When Lu wished to declare himself king, Yan Pu remonstrated and stopped him. Now Pu was enfeoffed as a full marquis. Rewards and punishments are the means by which evil is chastised and good encouraged. If they can make clear the guiding precepts, they will reach matters far and near, deep and profound. Now, Yan Pu counseled Lu not to become king, and the Grand Progenitor accordingly enfeoffed him. Who among future men would not think of submitting? Block the source, and the downstream current naturally stops—is this not what is meant here? If this principle is not understood, and instead one heaps rewards on those who achieve scorched-earth victories, bestowing generous titles and rewards only on soldiers who fight to the death, then the people will find profit in chaos, customs will vie in slaughter, they will rely on arms and force, and warfare will not cease. The Grand Progenitor's investiture here can be said to show an understanding of the fundamentals of reward and punishment. Even if Tang or Wu had handled it, they could not have done better.) The Weilüe says: During the Huangchu reign, Pu's fief and rank were increased; he was included in the Rites Invitation. He died of illness after more than ten years. (The Book of Jin says: The West Garrison Colonel Yan Zan was Pu's grandson.) Lu's daughter was taken in marriage for Pengzu. When Lu passed away, he was posthumously titled "Original Marquis." His son Fu succeeded him. (The Weilüe says: Liu Xiongming was a man of Lantian. In his youth he gathered herbs, hunted, and shot game. He often dwelt beneath Fujun Mountain. Every morning or evening when he went out, traveling through cloud and mist, he could recognize the paths and never lost his way, and people at the time therefore said he could make cloud and mist. During the chaos of Guo and Li, many people sought refuge with him. In the Jian'an period, he attached himself to the province and commandery. The province and commandery recommended him in a memorial as a minor general. When Ma Chao and others rebelled, he refused to join them, and Chao defeated him. Later he came before the Grand Progenitor. The Grand Progenitor took him by the hand and said: 'Just as I was entering the pass, I dreamed I obtained a divine man—and that was you!' He thereupon treated him with generous ceremony, appointed him as a general in a memorial, and sent an order to summon his followers. His followers did not wish to surrender, and then they coerced him to rebel. All sorts of fugitives went to support him, and he had a force of several thousand men, holding the Wuguan road junction. The Grand Progenitor sent Xiahou Yuan to attack and defeat him; Xiongming fled south to Hanzhong. When Hanzhong fell, he had nowhere left to go and surrendered once more. The Grand Progenitor seized him by the beard and said: 'Old scoundrel, I have truly got you now!' He restored his office and transferred him to Bohai. At that time there were also Cheng Yin, Hou Xuan, and Li Kan, all men of Hedong. During the Xingping chaos, each led some thousand-odd families. In the sixteenth year of Jian'an, they all joined together with Ma Chao. When Chao was defeated and fled, Kan died in the battle array, and Yin and Xuan went south into Hanzhong. When Hanzhong fell, they came before the Grand Progenitor and surrendered. All were restored to their offices and ranks.)