Conversations with the Delegation of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party and Annotations on the Issuance of Their Records (September and December 1956) I. Record of Conversations Time: September 24, 1956 Participants: On the Mongolian side: Damba [1] (head of the delegation), Zende, Ochirbat (ambassador), Hashgangbai, Tserebsambaa; on the Chinese side: Wang Jiaxiang [2]. Chairman Mao (hereinafter referred to as the Chairman): You must be very tired these past few days, aren’t you? Damba (hereinafter referred to as D): No, not at all; we are quite comfortable. The Chairman: Our Mongolian comrades are fine comrades and good friends. You represent a friendly nation and a friendly party! (The Chairman then inquired after Comrade Zendenbar [3].) D: He is well. Together with Comrade Sambu [4], he sends his regards to you! The Chairman: Thank you! Please convey my greetings to them as well. D: Thank you! We are grateful for your assistance. The Chairman: Oh, no—there’s no need to put it that way! China is a large country; it is our duty, and it is your right. I often hear you express such sentiments, and they are frequently written into official documents too, which makes me feel rather uneasy. We ought to fulfill our responsibilities, because over the past three centuries our ancestors exploited and oppressed you, leaving behind a heavy debt. Today, it is our task to repay that debt. In the past, the ethnic minorities within China also suffered oppression, and we have an equal obligation to make amends to them. Of Tibet’s population, one million two hundred thousand people are directly under Lhasa’s jurisdiction, while another million are scattered across Qinghai, Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, and other regions. How is the religious situation in Mongolia? Are there many lamas? What is the total population? D: There used to be many, but now very few remain. In the early years of the revolution, some lamas engaged in harmful activities and were dealt with accordingly. Others joined the workforce or took up other forms of labor. Today, only a handful of lamas are left. Our total population stands at eight hundred thousand. The Chairman: What is the state of industrial and agricultural development in Mongolia? D: Before the revolution, we were a very backward country. However, thanks to the Soviet Union’s enthusiastic support during those revolutionary years, our people made significant progress in industry, animal husbandry, and culture and education. The Chairman: So agriculture in Mongolia has also developed considerably? D: We only began developing agriculture this year. The Chairman: Is water sufficient? D: Water is extremely scarce in our country. The Chairman: What about rainfall? D: The average annual precipitation ranges from 120 to 300 millimeters—300 millimeters in forested areas and 120 millimeters in desert regions. The Chairman: What about drilling wells? D: Drilling wells in desert areas is very difficult. The Chairman: Then couldn’t you construct reservoirs to store water for future use? D: That presents considerable challenges in desert regions, as the water quickly seeps into the ground and cannot be retained. The Chairman: Which major rivers flow through your territory? D: The Selenga, the Orkhon, and the Kherulen, among others. The Chairman: Which rivers flow toward the northwest? D: The Orkhon and the Kherulen. The Chairman: Where do you trace the origins of Mongolian history and culture? D: Around the Orkhon and Kherulen rivers. The Chairman: Couldn’t you build dams, reservoirs, and flood-control channels along these rivers? D: Both the people and we ourselves strongly desire to do so, but our capabilities fall short. The Chairman: We ourselves face similar difficulties at present. Nevertheless, in a few years’ time, we will be able to assist you in this regard. D: Thank you. The Chairman: This year, Hebei Province experienced severe flooding, with thirty million mu of farmland inundated. China’s water-management infrastructure has yet to achieve substantial development; it may take another decade to resolve these issues fully. However, our assistance to you in this area need not wait that long. D: Last year, you provided us with extensive aid, dispatching thirteen thousand workers and technicians, which greatly boosted our industrial and construction projects. Moreover, this year you granted us an additional 160 million rubles in non-reimbursable aid. As a result, the Mongolian people are deeply encouraged and delighted. The Chairman: No, no—that has already been stated; it is our duty. Those figures are far too modest; whenever you mention them, I feel ashamed. D: The Jining–Erenhot railway line [5] has played a significant role in our country’s development. The Chairman: How is agriculture faring in Mongolia today? D: There has been some progress compared to the past, but due to a shortage of labor, a large portion of arable land remains uncultivated. The Chairman: That won’t do; you must break new ground. Have you begun settling permanently? D: Permanent settlement would greatly benefit our agricultural and pastoral development, yet we have not yet established permanent settlements. The Chairman: This cannot be accomplished overnight; it must be done gradually, since the amount of grass available in any given area is limited. Some provinces in China face similar circumstances. Settling down would also allow for vegetable cultivation and crop farming, thereby supporting population growth. D: Exactly! (pointing to Zende) He is the head of the State Planning Commission. Your suggestions will be of great value to our future planning efforts. The Chairman: To develop agriculture and animal husbandry, we must first improve our water-management infrastructure, including the construction of dams, reservoirs, and irrigation canals. On the other hand, pastureland is crucial; for you, “grass is oil.” Therefore, you should focus on cultivating high-quality pasture and employing deep plowing techniques, so that the grass grows tall and abundant, creating the conditions necessary for permanent settlement. D: Yes! We highly value your remarks. The Chairman: You could begin preparations for water-conservancy projects sooner. This involves geological surveys, mobilizing manpower and materials, while financial resources are less critical at this stage. The most pressing task is to address the immediate needs. For example, you have built a modern highway stretching from Ulaanbaatar to the western border, yet it sees very little traffic. Such a project is not particularly urgent. D: The People’s Republic of China has existed for only seven years. Prior to that, there was little interaction between our two peoples. Although our revolution succeeded thirty-five years ago, our country remained extremely backward throughout that period, limiting our overall development despite certain achievements. Consequently, both industry and agriculture in Mongolia have yet to reach a satisfactory level. The Chairman: You should strive for self-sufficiency. D: Currently, many everyday consumer goods cannot be produced domestically. The Chairman: That is undesirable; you need to expand domestic manufacturing in these sectors. D: Japan’s imperialist aggression against our country has also hindered progress in this area. The Chairman: How many troops do you have? D: Nearly one division. The Chairman: That should suffice. After all, you currently have no enemies surrounding you. D: We are now retraining demobilized soldiers to become drivers, construction workers, and so forth. The Chairman: That is excellent—turning the military into a productive force! Now, what about your script? D: We now use the new (Cyrillic) alphabet, and almost all adults are literate. The Chairman: Very good. Inner Mongolia is doing the same.

D: Indeed, that is reportedly the case. We could also assist Inner Mongolia in this regard. The Chairman: Absolutely—such cooperation is much needed. Do you maintain direct contact with Inner Mongolia? D: Not at present; we communicate only through central channels. The Chairman: Shouldn’t you establish direct ties? D: We believe direct contact is necessary, but the formal procedures have not yet been completed. The Chairman: You certainly can. You might consider opening your own consulate in Inner Mongolia. It wouldn’t require much expense—simply assigning a few staff members from your existing embassy would suffice. The Soviet Union has done just that, maintaining consulates in Tianjin, Shanghai, Shenyang, Guangzhou, and other cities. However, what I have just said reflects my personal views and may not necessarily align with official positions, as I have not consulted with government or foreign ministry officials. Similarly, you have not yet discussed this matter with your own government. Nonetheless, I believe such steps are feasible. D: Thank you! We had never even considered repaying any historical debts; we simply expressed our gratitude to you. The Chairman: No—repaying debts means rectifying the wrongs committed by our ancestors. The Chairman: The Mongols are the third major ethnic group. The first were the Xiongnu, who occupied Xinjiang and the northern plains of the Yellow River, even crossing the river at times. The second were the Turks, who conquered Armenia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Egypt, Greece, and numerous other peoples, establishing a vast empire. However, they were eventually defeated by the Mongols. Thus, the Mongols constitute the third major ethnic group. To this day, we still do not fully understand the origins of your ancestors. Could they have come from Siberia? Ochirbat: Oh! It is believed that they did!

The Chairman: There once existed a people known as the “High-Carriage Tribe” in Siberia, said to travel atop towering carts. Were they your ancestors? D: Elders tell us that in ancient times, when our forebears migrated, they loaded all their belongings onto exceptionally high carts. The Chairman: Do you possess any historical records pertaining to this period? D: We have no records dating back before the 12th century; some exist from the 13th century onward. The Soviet Union has been assisting us in this research. The history of Mongolia prior to the 13th century is closely intertwined with Chinese history, and we may continue collaborating with you on related studies in the future. The Chairman: Excellent. Today we have discussed many aspects of history. D: Our prospects are bright, thanks to the fraternal assistance of the Soviet Union and China. Moving forward, we must work even harder. The Chairman: Indeed, you should strive for further development. D: Once again, I wish to express our heartfelt gratitude. Your assistance to us has been truly brotherly and invaluable. We should not view it merely as “aid.” The Chairman: But that is precisely how we see it. We advocate for equal relations with all nations. In the past, we oppressed you, and now we must acknowledge that wrongdoing. This applies not only to you but also to China’s ethnic minorities. Having previously subjected them to oppression, if we fail to confess and repent, we will never eradicate Han chauvinism or achieve genuine ethnic equality. This is a matter of principle, not mere rhetoric. Isn’t that correct? We once oppressed you, yet you have uttered not a single complaint. The assistance we provide is small—it is repayment of a debt, not mere charity—and only in this spirit can mutual trust be built. If you choose to call it “assistance,” that is acceptable as well, for it signifies equality. D: We extend our deepest gratitude for all the assistance you have rendered to us, both past and future. The working peoples of China and Mongolia have always maintained friendly relations; the actions of reactionary forces are another matter entirely. The Chairman: Some Chinese workers have gone to Mongolia. You should conduct educational work among them to prevent the spread of Han chauvinist ideology and any tendencies toward domination. Should any Chinese worker or staff member there commit misconduct, please inform us promptly. D: Most are exemplary; a small minority may occasionally err, though such lapses are usually unintentional. Everyone has their shortcomings. The Chairman: They must receive proper education, and those who commit serious violations should be punished according to law. You, as the host party, should take a proactive stance and ensure their proper guidance. D: Among the Chinese workers stationed here, there are two hundred Communist Party members who lead their colleagues effectively. The Chairman: Excellent! How many Chinese workers are there in total? D: Including their families, the number reaches thirteen thousand. Many overseas Chinese have returned home, leaving only four to five thousand remaining, and they are mostly elderly. The Chairman: Are these workers supervised by Mongolians? Zende: Yes! Mongolians exercise oversight over them in a responsible and owner-like manner. The Chairman: Are there any carpenters among the Chinese workforce? D: Yes. There are also bricklayers and workers in various other trades. £² ０

The Chairman: Should they mentor Mongolian apprentices? D: They are indeed training local apprentices individually. The Chairman: In the future, we could send you human resources to assist with agricultural development—perhaps ten thousand, twenty thousand, or even thirty thousand individuals. Some of them could also help with animal husbandry. D: That sounds promising, but we must first make thorough preparations and detailed plans. Otherwise, upon their arrival, we may face difficulties in providing housing and other necessities. The Chairman: Precisely—these efforts should proceed step by step. With a population of eight hundred thousand, you are certainly capable of advancing agriculture and water management. D: We currently have more than fifty-two thousand workers. The Chairman: Fifty-two thousand workers out of a population of eight hundred thousand is no small number. Are any machines employed? D: Semi-automatic machinery is in use. The Chairman: Are there any fully automated processes? D: Not yet. The Chairman: Perhaps automation can be introduced in the future. We can discuss this further at a later date. D: Thanks to your assistance, we now have a match factory and a porcelain factory. However, the matchboxes required by the match factory are still made by hand. The Chairman: What is the production capacity for matches? D: The entire country requires twenty million boxes of matches, and next year we aim to meet that demand. Nevertheless, domestic sales remain sluggish. The Chairman: How is your market performing? £² １

D: We do have a market, albeit a small one. The Chairman: Today’s discussion has been very fruitful. D: We are deeply grateful for your care and attention, for taking the time out of your busy schedule to receive us, for your insightful suggestions of great significance, and for your beneficial words. Upon our return, we shall regard everything you have said tonight as a guiding principle for our future work. As we part ways, I would like to express, on behalf of the Central Committee and all the people, our sincere respect and appreciation for you. Printed based on the mimeographed copy preserved in the Central Archives. II. Annotations on the Issuance of the Conversation Records Foreign Ministry: This record should be forwarded to our Embassy in Mongolia, the CPC Committee of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, as well as the provincial, municipal, and district-level party committees, as all regions face issues concerning ethnic minorities. A duplicate copy should also be sent to the United Front Work Department and the Ethnic Affairs Commission leadership. Please handle this matter in coordination with Comrade Shang Kun [6]. Mao Zedong December 16, 1956 Based on the handwritten manuscript Notes [1] Damba was then First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party. [2] Wang Jiaxiang served as Minister of International Liaison of the CPC Central Committee at the time. [3] Zendenbar held the position of Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Mongolian People’s Republic. 2£²

[4] Sambu was Chairman of the Presidium of the Great People’s Khural of the Mongolian People’s Republic. [5] The Jining–Erenhot railway line refers to the rail link connecting Jining in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region with Erenhot, which crosses the border into the Mongolian People’s Republic. [6] Shang Kun refers to Yang Shangkun, who at the time served as Alternate Secretary of the CPC Central Secretariat and Director of the General Office of the CPC Central Committee. On December 16, 1956, the CPC Central Committee distributed the record of Mao Zedong’s conversation to provincial and municipal party committees, autonomous region party committees, the Tibet Working Committee, and the Chinese Embassy in Mongolia.