Central Instructions on Criticizing Great-Han Chauvinism [1] (March 16 and 27, 1953)  To the Central-South Bureau, the Henan Provincial Committee, all Central Bureaus, Sub-bureaus, Provincial Committees, Municipal Committees, and the Tibet Work Committee:   (1) Having received Comrade Zhang Zhiyi’s report dated January 30 concerning a visit to ethnic minorities in Henan [2] and having heard Comrade Ma Jie’s briefing [3], the Central Committee deems that the recent mission dispatched by the Central-South Administrative Committee to Henan was highly effective and exerted considerable political influence, essentially stabilizing the sentiments of the Hui population in Henan.
However, the problems uncovered were quite serious.
It is therefore requested that the Henan Provincial Committee carefully study and address these issues in accordance with the Central Committee’s ethnic policy.
Grave-Han chauvinist ideas should be subjected to stern criticism, and education on ethnic policy should be conducted among cadres and the general public.
A report detailing the measures taken and their outcomes must be submitted to the Central Committee.

(2) Given the highly abnormal state of inter-ethnic relations in Henan—except in places like Zhengzhou—it may well be that similar conditions prevail in other provinces as well.
Accordingly, comrades responsible for united front work in the various Central Bureaus, Sub-bureaus, Provincial Committees, and Municipal Committees, together with colleagues from the United Front Work Departments and Ethnic Affairs Committees (where such committees exist), are urged to set aside time to thoroughly read the reports submitted by Comrades Zhang Zhiyi and Ma Jie.

Such situations are intolerable for communists.
We must deeply criticize the grave Great-Han chauvinist ideology that persists among many Party members and cadres—the reactionary thinking exhibited by the landlord and bourgeois classes in matters of inter-ethnic relations, which is, in essence, Kuomintang thought—and immediately begin rectifying these errors.

In every region where ethnic minorities reside, we should follow the example set by the Central-South region: dispatch delegations led by comrades like Zhang Zhiyi and Ma Jie—individuals who are well-versed in ethnic policy and who harbor genuine sympathy for our minority compatriots still subjected to discrimination and suffering—to conduct fact-finding missions, assist local Party and government organs in identifying and resolving problems, rather than engaging in perfunctory visits.

Based on numerous reports, the Central Committee believes that wherever ethnic minorities are present, unresolved issues almost invariably exist, some of them quite severe.

While outwardly appearing calm, the underlying situation is often highly fraught.
For instance, the problems revealed a year ago when the Dingxi Prefectural Committee of Gansu sent a delegation to investigate Sino–Hui relations in Dalachi Township, Jingyuan County; the issues brought to light at last year’s Central Conference on Xinjiang affairs and at the province-wide Party representative conference there; the difficulties identified at a recent meeting of the Xikang Provincial Committee regarding our comrades’ work among the Yi people of Liangshan; the concerns documented in the reports of Comrades Zhang Zhiyi and Ma Jie; and the problems discovered across the country over the past two to three years—all attest to the widespread presence of Great-Han chauvinism.

If we fail to seize this opportune moment to carry out educational campaigns and resolutely overcome Great-Han chauvinism within the Party and among the people, the consequences could be dire.
In many localities, the problems affecting inter-ethnic relations are not merely remnants of Great-Han chauvinism but rather manifestations of its more virulent form: bourgeois ideology has taken hold among certain cadres and masses, who have yet to receive Marxist education or fully grasp the Central Committee’s ethnic policies.
Serious educational efforts are thus required, with the aim of gradually resolving this issue.

(3) This document and its two appendices are to be published in the Party journal.
Furthermore, newspapers should publish more articles based on factual accounts, conducting open criticism and educating both the Party and the people.
Issued by the Central Committee on March 16, 1953, from a version revised by Mao Zedong.
It has been abridged and included in Volume Five of the Selected Works of Mao Zedong.

Reviewed by Comrades Zhu, Deng Xiaoping, Deng Zihui, Rao Shushi, An Ziwen, Peng Zhen, Peng Dehuai, Lin Boqu, Dong Biwu, Gao Gang, Chen Boda, Li Weihan, Ulanhu, Liu Geping, Liu Chun, Yang Jingren, and Hu Qiaomu [4]. Processed by Comrade Shang Kun [ ]. Due to the importance of this matter, two additional paragraphs have been appended.
Should you have any comments, please submit them for my further review.
If no objections are raised, Comrade Shang Kun is authorized to issue this directive via telegram to all Central Bureaus, Sub-bureaus, Provincial and Municipal Committees, and to transmit a separate telegram to Tibet.
Copies will also be distributed in Beijing as previously arranged.
The second item in Mao Zedong’s original draft of March 16, being of a private nature, may be communicated separately by telegram and is not included herein.

To Comrade Shang Kun: Please remove the passages that Comrade Hu Qiaomu indicated should be deleted from the reports of Comrades Zhang Zhiyi and Ma Jie, and then transmit the revised text by telegram.
Separate copies will be printed in Beijing as before.
Mao Zedong, March 27.
This document was not further discussed due to lack of time.
It is reproduced from the manuscript.

The report recommends: conducting a province-wide campaign to study and implement ethnic policies; vigorously criticizing Great-Han chauvinist attitudes and behaviors; fostering among cadres and the public an understanding of the importance of safeguarding religious freedom and respecting minority customs; and strengthening unity between Han and Hui peoples.
With regard to Hui elites—such as religious leaders, imams, and a small number of entrepreneurs—a policy of winning them over, uniting them, and providing them with education should be pursued, while ensuring their material well-being.
Land formerly belonging to mosques that has already been redistributed should be compensated for through reallocation from reserve farmland, and encroached-upon mosque buildings should be vacated as soon as possible.
Prominent mosques require urgent restoration.
In conjunction with democratic governance reforms, steps should be taken to establish Hui autonomous regions or townships.
Assistance should be provided to urban Hui communities to organize production cooperatives and credit unions, and greater relief efforts should be directed toward the elderly, the destitute, and those without family support.
The education and health authorities are urged to move beyond generalized approaches and conduct a thorough audit of how last year’s special funds were utilized.

--- Notes

Notes  [1] The first part of this document consists of the Central Committee’s instructions on criticizing Great-Han chauvinism, substantially rewritten by Mao Zedong.
The sections typeset in Song typeface represent additions and revisions made by Mao; he also devised an extended title for these instructions: “Central Committee Instructions on Conducting Marxist Education Regarding Ethnic Issues Within the Party and Among the People, Criticizing Great-Han Chauvinism, and Specifically Resolving the Ongoing Discrimination and Suffering Endured by Ethnic Minorities.”
The second and third sections comprise Mao Zedong’s marginal notes written in preparation for revising and issuing these instructions.


[2] Refers to the report dated January 30, 1953, submitted by Comrade Zhang Zhiyi, Vice Chairman of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the Central People’s Government, to the Central-South Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, as well as to the Central United Front Work Department, the Party Leadership Group of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, and the Henan Provincial Committee.
The report states that Henan is home to approximately 400,000 Hui people, along with nearly 460,000 members of other ethnic minorities.
During the visit, various parties reported abnormal inter-ethnic relations, with the following key issues identified: (1) Land belonging to mosques has been redistributed, and even some mosque buildings themselves have been encroached upon, rendering repairs impossible and creating financial hardship for imams. (2) Hui customs and practices are frequently disrespected, mocked, and insulted; membership in the Party and Youth League, as well as promotion to leadership positions, are often contingent upon adherence to these customs.
The food rations provided to Hui cadres have long remained inadequate, and they are often subjected to ridicule, with pork and lard surreptitiously added to their meals.
Near wells used by Hui communities, Han residents keep pigs and slaughter them, allowing the animals to roam freely, sometimes even entering mosques. (3) Prior to liberation, many Hui people were engaged in small-scale trade, butchery, and leatherworking.
After liberation, rural Hui households were allocated land, while urban Hui businesses faced restrictions on cattle slaughter, centralized procurement and marketing of hides, and stringent regulations governing street vending, resulting in a decline in income compared with pre-liberation levels. (4) Those who come into contact with ethnic policies—both officials and ordinary citizens—are largely in favor of establishing autonomous regions. (5) The majority of the population insists that the Marriage Law should apply exclusively within each ethnic group and opposes intermarriage with other groups; however, younger generations do not support such restrictions. (6) Special funds allocated to education and healthcare for ethnic minorities are often misappropriated, and Hui secondary schools receive less favorable treatment than ordinary schools.
The report concludes that inter-ethnic relations between Han and Hui populations in Henan are markedly strained, with deep-seated mistrust stemming from a lack of respect for religious freedom and cultural practices.
A new foundation of mutual respect and solidarity has yet to be fully established.
Coupled with widespread economic hardship, Hui residents remain apprehensive about the future of their community, harboring strong feelings of ethnic identity alongside fears of assimilation.


[3] Refers to the report dated February 21, 1953, submitted by Comrade Ma Jie, Chief of the Secretariat Office of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the Central People’s Government, to Comrades Li Weihan, Vice Chairman; Ulanhu, Liu Geping, and Liu Chun, Vice Chairmen.
The report proposes the following measures for work related to ethnic minorities in Henan: (1) Launch a province-wide campaign to study and enforce ethnic policies.
In mixed Han–Hui areas or regions where inter-ethnic tensions are particularly pronounced, convening unity meetings could prove effective. (2) All levels of government should place ethnic affairs on their official agendas and establish dedicated bodies to address these issues. (3) Implement regional ethnic autonomy in areas with concentrated Hui populations, and establish joint Han–Hui democratic governments in mixed-population areas.
Actively recruit Hui cadres into the workforce and systematically cultivate a cadre pool from among ethnic minority groups. (4) Respect Hui religious freedom.
Land previously assigned to mosques should, as a rule, remain untouched and be compensated for through reallocation from reserve farmland, thereby enabling necessary repairs and covering operational expenses.
Buildings seized from mosques should, in principle, be returned.
Imams are religious professionals; their social background should not be judged solely on landownership status, but rather assessed within the context of their families.
Efforts should be made to unite imams and support their participation in educational activities.
Both Han and Hui communities should be encouraged to respect one another’s customs—for example, retail outlets could maintain separate counters for halal and non-halal products, and government offices with a significant number of Hui employees might consider establishing communal dining facilities for Hui staff, potentially supplementing their meal allowances if numbers are too small. (5) Early directives should be issued regarding Han–Hui marriage issues to ensure proper implementation at lower levels. (6) Address unemployment and livelihood challenges facing the Hui population.
Urban Hui workers should be assisted in transitioning to new occupations and encouraged to engage in self-help production initiatives.
In rural areas, gradual solutions should be sought for issues related to livestock and agricultural tools, alongside efforts to improve farming techniques. (7) Human rights violations and other instances of policy breaches involving ethnic minorities must be promptly investigated and dealt with. (8) Increase funding earmarked for ethnic minority groups.


[ ] Zhu refers to Zhu De.
Xiaoping denotes Deng Xiaoping, who at the time served as Vice Premier of the State Council.
Zihui stands for Deng Zihui, then Minister of the CPC Central Committee’s Rural Work Department.
Rao represents Rao Shushi, who held the post of Minister of the CPC Central Committee’s Organization Department.
An signifies An Ziwen, Deputy Minister of the same department.
Peng Zhen was a candidate member of the CPC Central Committee Secretariat.
Peng Dehuai served as Vice Chairman of the People’s Revolutionary Military Commission.
Lin refers to Lin Boqu, Secretary-General of the Central People’s Government.
Dong denotes Dong Biwu, Vice Premier of the State Council.
Gao Gang was Chairman of the Central People’s Government’s State Planning Commission.
Chen Boda concurrently held the posts of Deputy Minister of Propaganda of the CPC Central Committee and Deputy Minister of the Central Committee’s Rural Work Department.
Li Weihan served as Minister of the CPC Central Committee’s United Front Work Department and Chairman of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the Central People’s Government.
Ulanhu, Liu Geping, and Liu Chun were all Vice Chairmen of the latter commission.
Yang Jingren was Director of the Secretariat Office of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission.
Hu Qiaomu was Deputy Minister of Propaganda of the CPC Central Committee and Mao Zedong’s personal secretary.


[5] Shang Kun refers to Yang Shangkun, who at the time served as Director of the CPC Central Committee’s General Office.