The Hunan Intellectual Scene Before the Jianxue Society

For the past twenty years, the intellectual scene in Hunan has been exceedingly bleak. Twenty years ago, Tan Sitong[1] and others advocated the Southern Study Society[2] in Hunan, gathering prominent figures such as Liang Qichao and Mai Menghua[3] to establish the Shiwu Academy[4] in Changsha and to publish the *Xiang Bao*[5] and *Shiwu Bao*[6]. For a time, a surge of activity arose, carrying the momentum of a clarion call. Tracing the reasons, it was because, after the millennia-old empire had repeatedly suffered defeats at the hands of foreign powers, pent-up resentment, pain, shame, and regret erupted into passionate determination. People came to realize that relying solely on the Great Wall or the Bohai Sea could not stop the iron cavalry and fearless warships of foreigners. China’s old methods were indeed proving inadequate. The call for "reform and self-strengthening" resounded through the realm of governance and the lands of Yunmeng, penetrating deeply. The transformation of China’s circumstances marked a major turning point at that time. Hunan likewise underwent transformation, serving as a major pivot in that era.

When thought changed, what kind of thought was it then? Where lay the center of the intellectual world at that time? This question must first be answered as follows—

(1) The thought of that time was characterized by arrogance. Talk of "pursuing Western learning" and "humbly investigating" was nothing more than a method of "learning their ways only to use them in return." In everyone’s mind lay the expectation that within ten or twenty years, they could master the new foreign methods. Once these new methods were mastered, self-strengthening would follow. Once the goal of self-strengthening was achieved, they could confront the foreign devils in a final decisive battle[7] or even beat them so thoroughly that not a scrap of their armor would remain. It was like a child, bullied by the neighbor’s kid, secretly taking out a stick at night, planning to step outside the next morning and straightforwardly return the "little favor." In this sense, "Western learning" and "new methods" were akin to the child’s club.

(2) The thought of that time was hollow and insubstantial. One need only examine the publications that advocated reform from that period to understand. They were filled with lamentations of "Alas! Woe!" meant to stir others' emotions. Inside, they were mostly empty, rarely addressing the realities of human life and society. At that time, there was a vogue for "establishing schools," "pursuing self-government," and "petitioning to open a parliament." Tracing their foundations, most were merely joining in the excitement. Once joining the excitement became a trend, in the intellectual world of all people, it became difficult to move into actual research on real matters and truth.

(3) The thought of that time was a form of "Chinese learning for the fundamental principles, Western learning for practical application" thinking. "China is a land renowned for its culture and institutions; Chinese rites and moral teachings surpass those of all nations. The West only excels in natural sciences, firearms, and cannons—learning just these is sufficient." Should any discussion deviate slightly from this, one would be regarded as "one of those infatuated with European ways" and subjected to the world's scorn and revilement.

(4) The thought of that time was thought centered on Confucius. In politics then, there were movements to overthrow the Manchu regime and demands for representative government. In academic pursuits, there were movements to abolish the imperial examinations, establish schools, and adopt science. Yet regarding "Old Man" Confucius, no one dared utter half a word of "nay." They even strenuously promoted the fallacious doctrine that "learning must be new, but morality must be old"—"morality must be old" being a modified phrase meaning "morality must follow Confucius."

The points raised above characterized the situation across all of China, and Hunan occupied a place within this context. Therefore, although thought was changing, it was not a thorough transformation. One could only call it a sweeping change, a blind change, a transitional change. From the Wuxu Reform (1898) to the present day, Hunan's intellectual world has been entirely governed by this sweeping, blind, transitional change.

Hunan has pursued new learning for over twenty years, yet still lacks a clear-cut academic atmosphere. In Hunan’s old academic world, the two branches of Song Learning and Han Learning had formed a considerable climate twenty years ago. Over the past two decades, their lingering charm has not entirely faded. However, as academies were taken over by schools and students drawn away by science, these traditions became submerged beneath the surface of society. Tracing the reason why new learning has not developed an academic climate, it lies entirely in the fact that it never established a definitive central thought. The reasons why a central thought could not be established are several: (1) There were no scholarly societies of pure character. (2) There were no universities. (3) Very few studied abroad in the West. Those who did, driven by concerns for livelihood and vanity, tended to flock toward paths where "what they learned was not what they used," unable to continuously pursue research in their specialized fields. Those studying in Japan were drawn away by Huang Xing[8] to engage in political movements. (4) Political turmoil left no peaceful days for research. These are the reasons why a central thought in Hunan’s new academic circles could not be established—that is, why there was no academic atmosphere. Since the Xinhai Revolution (1911), those who have filled teaching positions unworthily have mostly been philistines. Flaunting their superficial half-knowledge views, they have created a situation that is neither fish nor fowl. Central thought, an atmosphere of new learning—these are even less attainable topics.

In recent years, China's overall situation has undergone a dramatic shift. Cai Yuanpei, Jiang Kanghu, Wu Jingheng, Liu Shifu, Chen Duxiu[9], and others first advocated reform. The proposals for reform were not limited to one aspect. From thought and literature to politics, religion, and art, there emerged an impetus to completely renew the old visage. Even questions such as whether the state is necessary, whether the family is necessary, whether marriage is necessary, and whether property should be private or public, have all become pressing issues for investigation. Moreover, the Great War in Europe stirred revolution in Russia; the tidal wave swept in, from west to east. The scholars of National Peking University first welcomed it, and youth in schools across the country's ports and cities responded massively. The surging billows reached Hunan, and thereupon the Jianxue Society came into being.

The Establishment of the Jianxue Society On the 15th of June [10], Chen Runlin[10], President of the Provincial Education Association, invited faculty members from schools throughout the provincial capital, including Xu Teli, Zhu Jianfan, Tang Song, Cai Xiang, Zhong Guotao, Yang Shuda, Li Yunhang, Xiang Shaoxuan, Peng Guojun, Fang Kegang, Ouyang Nai, He Binglin, Li Jingqiao, Zhao Yi, and others, to initiate the Jianxue Society. The meeting was held at Chuyi School. The following is a record of Mr. Chen Runlin’s report on the purpose of organizing the society, as published in a certain newspaper:

"During my recent visit to the capital, I was occasionally struck by impressions and felt deeply optimistic. This stems from the fact that four years ago, students at Peking University considered securing official positions as their sole objective. This was not only true of the university; students outside the university were almost all the same. During my recent stay in the capital, what I observed was distinctly different. The intellectual trends among university students have undergone a great change; all have become aware of paying attention to the matters human life should entail. Their currents of thought have already been widely manifested in various magazines and daily journals. Consequently, students at various schools in the capital also abruptly changed their old outlook and initiated this great national salvation movement. The reason for this is that since Mr. Cai Jiemin (Cai Yuanpei) became president of the university, he has infused philosophical thought and concepts of life, completely transforming old ways of thinking. Some mistakenly believe that the student national salvation movement was instigated by politicians, unaware that it actually arose from the students’ own initiative and the conflict between old and new currents of thought. Indeed, since the change in the Russian political system, socialism has gradually been introduced into the Far East. Although there are many factions, the tide cannot be stemmed. For instance, the Japanese government, which previously treated socialist party members with harsh persecution and ruthless killing, sparing no effort, has recently actually permitted their activities. Figures like Dr. Yoshino[11] advocate adopting state socialism[12] to moderate extremism, conform to world trends, and gradually change Japan's political system into a British-style nominal monarchy[13]. From this, one can see how swift and powerful the changes in global ideological trends are. New currents of thought in our country are also developing vigorously and will ultimately be difficult to suppress for long. Our compatriots should study them promptly and guide them onto the correct track. We colleagues organize this society with the aim of adopting correct and sound doctrines and conducting thorough research..."

At the meeting that day, it is heard, there were also speeches: Mr. Zhu Jianfan[14] advocated "each setting aside prejudices to study the world's new thought and obey truth," and Mr. Xiang Shaoxuan[15] advocated "adopting state socialism." In Hunan's intellectual circles, this cannot but be regarded as an unprecedented and novel undertaking. Below is a record of the society's published regulations:

(1) This society is formed by like-minded individuals, with the purpose of introducing the world's new currents of thought, engaging in collective research, and selectively disseminating them.

(2) This society is named the Jianxue Society ("Healthy Learning Society").

(3) The temporary meeting place is set at Chuyi Primary School, Chuyingyuan, Changsha.

(4) Those wishing to join must genuinely possess the aspiration to research scholarship and may become members upon introduction by one society member.

(5) Methods for introducing new currents of thought:

(1) Recently published books and magazines shall be collected by the society at any time for members to read. Books and newspapers owned by members may be lent to fellow members for reading. Those willing to donate their materials to the society are especially welcomed.

(2) Correspond with comrades at home and abroad, entrusting them to conduct investigations at any time and report via correspondence.

(3) Arrange talks by notable persons.

(6) Methods for research:

(1) The scope of research broadly includes issues in philosophy, education, psychology, logic, literature, aesthetics, sociology, political science, economics, etc. Members must each concentrate on researching one specific field.

(2) Important issues shall be researched collectively by the members.

(3) Members wishing to learn foreign languages shall be taught by fellow members of this society.

(7) Methods for dissemination:

(1) Lectures. There are two types: regular and occasional. Regular lectures shall be held every Sunday[16] from 8 to 10 a.m., with members taking turns to speak. The lecturer and topic shall be decided on the Sunday of the preceding week. The speaker must prepare a draft to be submitted for collective publication by the society. For occasional lectures, whenever there are important topics, either presented by members or by invited notable figures, a venue shall be sought elsewhere and a time scheduled for the event.

(2) Publications.

(8) This society shall appoint one treasurer and one librarian. Other society affairs shall be the collective responsibility of the members. At each meeting, one member shall be elected as temporary chairperson.

(9) The convention to be observed by members is as follows:

(1) Strictly observe punctuality.

(2) Be imbued with a spirit of research.

(3) Engage in mutual assistance in scholarly pursuits.

(4) Discuss scholarship freely.

(5) Eschew empty formalities and excessive politeness; prioritize honesty.

(10) Members shall pay an annual membership fee of two yuan or more. Those capable of specially raising funds for expenses are greatly welcomed by the society.

(11) When important matters requiring discussion arise, a notice may be temporarily issued to all members to hold a joint discussion after the regular lecture.

Points (5), (6), (7), and (9) of the regulations are extremely important. The "spirit of research" mentioned in (9) aims to break down self-righteous and complacent preconceptions; the intention is very good. It is to be hoped that after the spirit of "research," a spirit of "criticism" will follow. Modern academic development is largely achieved through individual originality. What is most important is the "self," "individuality"—which stands in direct contrast to Chinese custom, where the dead are not criticized, and contemporary views are not introduced into writings. We should use our own minds to actively engage at the center, like sunlight illuminating all under heaven, like a searchlight sweeping outward. Regardless of whether something is considered correct (taking what is currently deemed correct as such), or whether it conforms to people's opinions or not, we should only seek what brings peace of mind and accords with truth. What the elders dislike most is "wild arrogance." Yet they should realize that the truly accurate theories and great undertakings from ancient times to the present have all been invented and created by individuals labeled with the stigma of "arrogant" by those who apply such labels. Living in this complex society, this deceitful world, without a critical spirit, one can easily become a slave to others. A certain gentleman said that the majority of Chinese people are essentially slaves; this statement seems quite accurate. The point in (9) about "discuss scholarship freely" aligns well with the principles of freedom of thought and freedom of speech. This is one of the most precious and self-delighting points of humanity. In academic research, the deductive dogmatic approach is most abhorrent. Chinese concepts such as "Only when the teacher is revered is the Way honored," "adherence to a master's teaching," "orthodox transmission of the Way," and "factions/sects" are all great ailments stemming from a "dogmatic attitude." They are all intellectual coercion and must be vigorously dismantled. Just as in our opposition to Confucius—aside from many other reasons—solely on the grounds that his monopoly over China for two millennia stifled freedom in our intellectual world, making us subservient idol-worshippers in gloom, he must be opposed.

The Progress of the Jianxue Society

The activities undertaken by the Jianxue Society, as broadly stipulated in its regulations, involve researching and disseminating the latest scholarship. Currently, the emphasis is on the research aspect. It is heard that members have already been dispatched to places like Beijing and Shanghai to purchase books, newspapers, and magazines. An English study class has been established in the provincial capital to facilitate members learning English, in preparation for directly researching Western scholarship. Members aged forty to fifty are all enthusiastic about learning. A lecture forum has also been set up, where members take turns expressing their views, implementing an exchange of knowledge. Gentlemen brimming with bureaucratic airs have suddenly condescended to humbly undertake research. Although some onlookers still find room for dissatisfaction, believing that the bureaucratic air remains five- or six-tenths strong, and that the lectures often adopt a commanding or lecturing tone, and some even say they are merely engaging in protective mimicry like green insects on green leaves[17] — I believe such exhaustive fault-finding is unnecessary. In a Hunan so feminine and frail, so steeped in lethargy, such an initiative is quite sufficient to break out of confinement and dispel ennui. Like dawn's light in the east, like footsteps heard in an empty valley, we should rightfully applaud and welcome it, hoping it can serve as the foundation for "Reconstructing Hunan." Looking at the topics of their four lectures, such as "Erroneous Chinese Views on Life and Death," "How to Be a Person," "Education and Vernacular Chinese," and "Adopting Dewey's Educational Doctrine[18]," it can be said that they have grasped the essentials. If only they could completely shed their customary mannerisms and adopt open lectures, allowing everyone to attend, then the speed of dissemination and the magnitude of benefit would be immeasurable.

Printed according to the Special Supplement No. 1 of the *Xiangjiang Review*, July 21, 1919. Signed: Zedong.

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Notes

[1] Tan Sitong (1865–1898), courtesy name Fusheng, pseudonym Zhuangfei, from Liuyang, Hunan. Modern bourgeois reformist politician and thinker. After the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), he actively engaged in the reform movement, attacking the feudal autocratic system and its cardinal guides and constant virtues, and advocating for political change. In August 1898, he was summoned to Beijing and appointed a fourth-rank secretary of the Grand Council, participating in the Hundred Days' Reform. After its failure, he was executed, becoming one of the "Six Gentlemen of the Hundred Days' Reform." His works are compiled in the *Complete Works of Tan Sitong*. (Back to text)

[2] Southern Study Society (Nan Xue Hui): A reform group founded in Changsha, Hunan, in 1898 by Tan Sitong, Tang Caichang, and others. (Back to text)

[3] Mai Menghua (1875–1915), courtesy name Rubo, from Shunde, Guangdong. A disciple of Kang Youwei. (Back to text)

[4] Shiwu Academy (Shiwu Xuetang): A school founded in Changsha in 1897 by the reformists, with梁启超 (Liang Qichao) and others lecturing there. (Back to text)

[5] *Xiang Bao* (Xiang Journal): A newspaper founded in Changsha in 1898 by the reformists. (Back to text)

[6] *Shiwu Bao* (Current Affairs Journal): A periodical published in Shanghai from 1896 to 1898, edited by梁启超 (Liang Qichao) and others, advocating for reform. (Back to text)

[7] "Fight a final decisive battle with one's back to the city wall" (背城借一): An idiom meaning to fight a last, desperate battle. (Back to text)

[8] Huang Xing (1874–1916), originally named Zhen, courtesy name Keqiang, from Shanhua, Hunan (present-day Changsha). An important leader of the modern Chinese democratic revolution. (Back to text)

[9] Cai Yuanpei (1868–1940), courtesy name Jiemin, from Shaoxing, Zhejiang. Modern Chinese democratic revolutionary, educator, and scientist. Served as President of Peking University. Jiang Kanghu (1883–1954), from Yiyang, Jiangxi. Founded the Chinese Socialist Party in 1911. Wu Jingheng (1865–1953), courtesy name Zhihui, from Wujin, Jiangsu. Served as President of the Sino-French University. Liu Shifu (1884–1915), also known as Sifu, from Xiangshan, Guangdong (present-day Zhongshan). Anarchist. Chen Duxiu (1879–1942), courtesy name Zhongfu, from Huaining, Anhui. Served as Dean of the School of Arts at Peking University; chief editor of *New Youth* magazine. (Back to text)

[10] Chen Runlin (1879–1946), courtesy name Fenghuang, from Xinhua, Hunan. Educator. At this time, served as President of the Hunan Provincial Education Association. (Back to text)

[11] Yoshino Sakuzō (1878–1933): Japanese political scholar. (Back to text)

[12] State Socialism: A bourgeois reformist ideology advocating reliance on state power for social reform. (Back to text)

[13] Nominal Monarchy under Virtual Emperor System: Refers to a system where a monarch reigns but does not rule, with parliament exercising sovereign power; also known as a parliamentary monarchy. (Back to text)

[14] Zhu Jianfan (1883–1932), originally named Zhoutian, from Ningxiang, Hunan. Educator. At this time, served as Director of the Changsha County Education Bureau. (Back to text)

[15] Xiang Shaoxuan (1884–1946), from Chenxi, Hunan. Educator. At this time, served as Principal of the Hunan Provincial First United Middle School. (Back to text)

[16] Sunday: The Western term for the day of rest. (Back to text)

[17] Protective Mimicry: When a green insect lies on a green leaf, its body color blends with the leaf, making it difficult to distinguish. Here, it is used metaphorically to suggest that some members of the Jianxue Society were adapting their hue to fit in with the new fashion. (Back to text)

[18] Refers to the educational theories of the American pragmatist philosopher and educator John Dewey. (Back to text)

[2] The Southern Society, a political group founded by the bourgeois reformists of the late Qing Dynasty in Hunan. It was initiated and organized by Tan Sitong, Tang Caichang and others, and established in Changsha on February 21, 1898, with branches set up in various counties. The Southern Society organized various lecture activities, with Huang Zunxian, Pi Xirui, Tan Sitong and others taking turns to lecture, promoting new learning and discussing new policies in Hunan. It once engaged in fierce struggles with the conservative faction. After the Wuxu Coup, the Southern Society was banned.

[3] Liang Qichao, see Note [5] on page 10 of this book. Mai Menghua (1875–1915), courtesy name Rubo, pseudonym Jiameng, was a native of Shunde, Guangdong. A reformist figure of the late Qing Dynasty, he was a juren (successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level) and a disciple of Kang Youwei. In 1895, he participated in the "Gongche Shangshu" movement initiated by Kang Youwei. His reformist ideas were limited to transforming the powerless Guangxu Emperor into one with absolute power. After the failure of the Wuxu Reform, he went to Japan and assisted Liang Qichao in running the Qingyi Bao.

[4] The Current Affairs Academy, a new-style school founded by the bourgeois reformists of the late Qing Dynasty in Hunan. It was initiated by Jiang Dejun, Xiong Xiling and others, and established in Changsha in October 1897. Xiong Xiling served as principal, while Liang Qichao and Li Weige served respectively as head instructors for Chinese and Western studies. The curriculum included classics, history, the writings of various philosophers, as well as the political laws and natural sciences of capitalist countries, with the aim of propagating the ideas of reform and modernization. After the Wuxu Coup, the Current Affairs Academy was abolished in mid-November 1898 and replaced by the Qiushi Academy.

[5] The Hunan News, a newspaper founded by the bourgeois reformists of the late Qing Dynasty in Hunan. It was launched in Changsha in March 1898 by Tan Sitong, Tang Caichang and others, with the mission of "opening up the social atmosphere and broadening knowledge," advocating reform and modernization. After the failure of the Wuxu Reform, it was forced to cease publication on October 15 of the same year, having issued a total of 177 numbers. The Hunan News was the earliest daily newspaper in the history of Hunan.

[6] Current Affairs Newspaper, a major press organ of the bourgeois reformists of the late Qing Dynasty. It was launched in Shanghai on August 9, 1896, as a ten-day periodical, with Liang Qichao and others as chief editors. With the aim of "reforming to survive," it propagated bourgeois reformist ideas and became the most influential newspaper of the reformists. On August 8, 1898, after publishing up to its 69th issue, it was renamed Changyan Bao, with Wang Kangnian as editor-in-chief, and ceased publication in November after a total of 10 issues.

[7] See Zuo Zhuan, Second Year of Duke Cheng: "Please gather the remaining embers, and with our backs to the city, rely on a single battle." It means to fight a decisive battle against the enemy at one's own city walls, indicating a final struggle.

[8] Huang Xing, see Note [22] on page 48 of this book.

[9] Cai Yuanpei (1868–1940), pseudonym Jiemin, was a native of Shaoxing, Zhejiang. A modern Chinese democratic educator. In his early years, he opposed the autocratic rule of the Qing Dynasty and was one of the initiators of the Restoration Society. At the end of 1916, he became president of Peking University and actively supported the students' patriotic movement during the May Fourth period. From 1928, he served as president of the Nanjing Central Research Academy. After the "September 18" Incident, he advocated resistance against Japan and served as vice-chairman of the China League for Civil Rights. He died of illness in Hong Kong in 1940. Jiang Kanghu (1883–1954), originally named Shaoquan, was a native of Yiyang, Jiangxi. In his early years, he traveled to Japan and Europe, influenced by the revisionism of the Second International and anarchism. After the 1911 Revolution, he founded the Chinese Socialist Party in Shanghai, which advocated socialism. In 1921, he attended the Third Congress of the Communist International in Moscow. After returning to China, he successively pledged allegiance to the Northern Warlord government, the Nanjing Nationalist government, and Wang Jingwei's central government. After the victory of the Anti-Japanese War, he was arrested and later died in prison. Wu Jingheng, also known as Wu Zhihui (1866–1953), originally named Tiao, was a native of Wujin (now part of Changzhou), Jiangsu. A juren in the Guangxu period of the Qing Dynasty. In 1902, he joined the Shanghai Patriotic Society and worked at the Su Bao, advocating anti-Qing revolution. In 1905, he joined the Tongmenghui in France. In 1907, he founded the journal Xin Shiji (New Century) in Paris, promoting anarchism. From 1924, he served as a member of the Central Supervisory Committee of the Kuomintang and a member of the National Government. He died in Taiwan in 1953. Liu Shifu (1884–1915), originally named Sifu, was a native of Xiangshan (now Zhongshan), Guangdong. In his early years, he studied in Japan and joined the Tongmenghui. In the spring of 1910, he participated in organizing the China Assassination Corps. After the outbreak of the Wuchang Uprising, he led peasant uprisings in the Dongjiang area, known as the Xiang Army. In May 1912, he returned to Guangzhou to organize the Huiming Academy. Shortly after, he organized the Heart Society with Zheng Bi'an and others, and in July of the same year, he established the Anarchist Communist Comrades Society in Shanghai. In August 1913, he launched the Huiming Lu (also known as The Voice of the Common People) in Guangzhou. He was a prominent anarchist in the early Republic of China. Chen Duxiu, see Note [2] on page 306 of this book.

[10] Chen Runlin (1879–1946), courtesy name Suhuang, pseudonym Liyuan, was a native of Xinhua, Hunan. A modern educator, he studied in Japan in his early years and actively founded modern new-style schools after returning to China. In 1918, he became president of the Hunan Education Association. He devoted his entire life to education, participated in the 1911 Revolution, opposed Yuan Shikai, expelled Zhang Jingyao and others, supported the Chuanshan Academy, aided Mao Zedong in running the Cultural Bookstore, and championed cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party in the common resistance against Japan.

[11] Dr. Yoshino, refers to Sakuzo Yoshino (1877–1933), a Japanese politician and Doctor of Laws. He studied abroad in his early years and, after returning to Japan, became a professor at the Law Faculty of Tokyo Imperial University. He advocated minpon shugi (people-centered democracy), supported universal suffrage, briefly entered politics, resigned his professorship in 1924, and wrote exclusively for the Asahi Shimbun. He also edited and published the Meiji Bunka Zenshu (Complete Collection of Meiji Culture).

[12] State socialism, a bourgeois reformist ideology that attempts to use state power to carry out reforms. Its main representatives were Germany's Rodbertus and Lassalle.

[13] The British-style titular monarchy, i.e., parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The monarch does not directly control state power; the cabinet holds executive authority and is formally responsible to parliament.

[14] Zhu Jianfan, also written as Zhu Jianfan, i.e., Zhou Jiachun (1883–1932), was a native of Ningxiang, Hunan. He studied in Japan at the end of the Qing Dynasty and engaged in women's education after returning. At the end of 1919, he took part in the movement to expel the warlord Zhang Jingyao, supported Mao Zedong in running the Cultural Bookstore, and during the First Great Revolution, participated in the leadership of the Kuomintang Hunan Provincial Party Headquarters and the Changsha Municipal Party Headquarters as a left-wing member. After the failure of the Great Revolution, he went into exile in Japan. Returning to Shanghai in 1929, he joined the Freedom Alliance movement initiated by Soong Ching-ling and Lu Xun.

[15] Xiang Shaoxuan (1884–1946), courtesy name Fu'an, was a native of Chenxi, Hunan. He studied in England in his early years, returned to China in 1918, and worked at Shanghai Mingde High School. After the school moved to Wuhan and was renamed Mingde University, he became vice-president. In 1926, he returned to Hunan and served as head of the West Hunan Automobile Bureau. In 1940, he went to the National Institute for Compilation and Translation in Chongqing to engage in writing and research, and in 1945, he returned to Hunan to serve as professor and dean of the Law School at Hunan University.

[16] Nichiyōbi, i.e., Sunday. "Yō" also written as "yao." The ancients referred to the sun, moon, and the five major planets of gold, wood, water, fire, and earth as the seven yao.

[17] Adaptive function, biologically referred to as protective coloration. The coloration which allows an animal to blend with its environment, facilitating the capture of prey and avoiding attacks from enemies.

[18] John Dewey (1859–1952), an American idealist philosopher, sociologist, and educator. Deweian educational theory is a pragmatic educational doctrine positing that education is life, school is society, and methods of instruction should follow the principle of "learning by doing." It also views education merely as a "tool" through which class reconciliation can be achieved. He visited China for lectures between 1919 and 1921, and through the dissemination efforts of Hu Shi and others, his doctrines had a certain influence in old China.