Ptolemy's System (2nd century

↑↓   A.D.).
Pythagoras (6th century B.C.): the world is governed by number and measure...
15th century: revival of astronomy - linked with navigation.
Copernicus (1473-1543): heliocentric system. Circles (not ellipses).
The four elements, substances of the ancient philosophers: earth, fire, water, air...
((Only in the ½ of the 19th century did improved measuring instruments prove changes in the appearance of fixed stars.))
Democritus (5th century B.C.):

↑↓   atoms...
17th century: chemical elements.
Spectral analysis (1860).
Electricity etc.
Law of conservation of energy.
Galileo - (1564-1642).

Kepler - (1571-1630).

Newton - (1643-1727).
telescope etc. ((more than 20 million stars etc. discovered))
flattening of the Earth at the poles 1/229 of the diameter instead of 1/299
LUDWIG DARMSTÄDTER. "HANDBOOK OF THE HISTORY OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY"
BERLIN, 1908, 2ND EDITION
(Leses'aal in der Landesbibliothek)
Determination of the speed of light:
1676: Olaf Rømer (based on Jupiter's eclipses): 40,000 geographical miles (less than ......300,000) km per second
(less than .....298,000 km)