The DEVELOPMENT of CAPITALISM in RUSSIA

Chapter VIII. The Formation of the Home Market

II. The Growth of the Commercial and Industrial Population

We have stated above that the growth of the industrial population at the
expense of the agricultural is a requisite phenomenon of every capitalist
society. In what way the separation of industry from agriculture steadily
takes place has also been examined, and now all that remains is to sum up
on this question.

1) The Growth of the Towns

The most striking expression of the process under examination is the
growth of the towns. Here are data on this growth in European Russia (50
gubernias) in the post Reform period [1] :

Thus, the percentage of urban population is constantly growing, that is,
the population is being diverted from agriculture into commercial and
industrial occupations. [2]

The population of the towns is growing twice as fast as that of the rest of
the country: from 1863 to 1897 the total population increased 53.3%, the
rural 48.5%, while the urban increased 97%. Over a period of 11 years
(1885-1897) “the influx, at a minimum, of the rural population into
the towns” was 2 1/2 million persons, according to
Mr. V. Mikhailovsky’s estimate, [3] i.e., more than 200,000 per annum.

The population of towns that are important industrial and commercial
centres is growing much more rapidly than the urban population
generally. The number of towns with 50,000 and more inhabitants more than
trebled between 1863 and 1897 (13 and 44). In 1863, of the total urban
population only about 27% (1.7 million out of 6.1) were concentrated in
such large centres; in 1885 it was nearly 41% (4.1 million out of

9.9), [4] and in 1897 it was already more than half, about 53% (6.4 million out of 12
million). In the 1860s, therefore, the smaller towns provided the general
pattern of the urban population, but in the 1890s they were completely
outweighed by the big cities. The population of the 14 towns that had been
the biggest in 1863 increased from 1.7 million inhabitants to 4.3 million,
i.e., by 153%, whereas the overall urban population increased by only 97%
. Hence, the enormous growth of large industrial centres and the emergence
of a large number of new centres is one of the most characteristic
features of the post-Reform period.

2) The Significance of Home Colonisation

As we have pointed out above (Chapter I, § II, p. 40), theory deduces the
law that the industrial population grows at the expense of the
agricultural from the fact that in industry variable capital increases
absolutely (the growth of variable capital means a growth of the number of
industrial workers and a growth of the total commercial and industrial
population), whereas in agriculture the “variable capital required
for the exploitation of a certain plot of land decreases
absolutely.” “It can thus only increase,” Marx adds, “to the extent that new land is taken into cultivation, but this
again requires as a prerequisite a still greater growth of the
non-agricultural population.” [44]
Hence it is clear that the growth of the industrial population is a
phenomenon observable in its pure form only when we have before us an
already populated territory in which all the land is already occupied. The
inhabitants of such a territory, when forced-out of agriculture by
capitalism, have no other alternative but to migrate to the industrial
centres or to other countries. But the situation is essentially different
when we have before us a territory in which not all the land is occupied,
and which is not yet fully populated. The inhabitants of such a territory,
when forced out of agriculture in a populated area, may remove to an
unpopulated part of that territory and set about “taking new land
into cultivation.” The result will be an increase in the
agricultural population, and this increase may be (for some time) no less,
if not more, rapid than the increase in the industrial population. In that
case, we have before us two different processes: 1) the development of
capitalism in the old, populated country or part of the country; 2) the
development of capitalism on “new land.” The first process
expresses the further development of established capitalist relationships;
the second, the rise of new capitalist relationships on new territory. The
first process means the development of capitalism in depth, the second, in
breadth. Obviously, to confuse these two processes must inevitably lead to
a wrong conception of the process which diverts the population from
agriculture to commercial and industrial occupations.

Post-Reform Russia affords us an example of the two processes going on
simultaneously. At the beginning of the post-Reform period, in the 60s,
the southern and eastern outer regions of European Russia were largely
unpopulated, and there was an enormous influx into those areas of migrants
from the central agricultural part of Russia. It was this formation of a
new agricultural population on new territory that to some extent obscured
the parallel process of the diversion of the population from agriculture
to industry. To get a clear picture, from data on the urban population, of
the specific feature of Russia here described, we must divide the 50
gubernias of European Russia into separate groups. We give data on the
urban population in 9 areas of European Russia in 1863 and in 1897 (see
p. 564).

As far as the question that interests us is concerned, the greatest
importance attaches to three areas: 1) the non-agricultural industrial
area (the 11 gubernias in the first two groups, including the 2
metropolitan gubernias). [5]

This is an area from which migration to other areas has been very slight. 2)
The central agricultural area (the 13 gubernias in group 3). Migration
from this area has been very consider able, partly to the previous area,
but mainly to the next. 3) The agricultural outer regions (the 9 gubernias
in group 4) constitute an area that has been colonised in the post-Reform
period. The percentage of urban population in all these 33 gubernias
differs very little, as the table shows, from the percentage of urban
population in European Russia as a whole.

In the first area, the non-agricultural or industrial, we observe a
particularly rapid rise in the percentage of urban population: from 14.1%
to 21.1%. The growth of the rural population is here very slight, being
little more than half of that for the whole of Russia. The growth of the
urban

population, on the other hand, is considerably above the average (105% as
against 97%). If Russia is to be compared with West-European industrial
countries (as is often done here), then these countries should be compared
with just this one area, for it alone has conditions approximately similar
to those of the industrial capitalist countries.

In the second, the central agricultural area, we see a different
picture. The percentage of urban population here is very low and grows
with less than average rapidity. The increase in the population between
1863 and 1897, both urban and rural, was much below the average for
Russia. This is to be explained by the vast stream of migrants from this
area to the border regions. According to Mr. V. Mikhailovsky’s
calculations, between 1885 and 1897 nearly 3 million people , or
more than one-tenth of the population left these parts. [6]

In the third area, the outer regions, we see that the percentage of urban
population underwent an increase that was slightly below the average (from 11.2% to 13.3%, i.e., in the proportion of 100 : 118,
whereas the average is from 9.94 to 12.76, i.e., in the proportion of 100
: 128). And yet the absolute growth of the urban population here, far from
being less, was considerably above the average (+130% as against
+97%). The diversion of population from agriculture to industry has,
consequently, been very intense, but it is hidden by the enormous growth
of the agricultural population as a result of influx: in this area the
rural population increased by 87%, as against an average for Russia of
48.5%. In certain gubernias this obscuring of the process of the
industrialisation of the population is still more striking. For instance,
in Taurida Gubernia the percentage of urban population was the same in
1897 as in 1863 (19.6%), and in Kherson Gubernia actually declined (from
25.9% to 25.4%), although the growth of the towns in both the gubernias
was not far behind that of the metropolitan cities (+131%, +135%, as
against +141% in the two metropolitan gubernias). The rise of a new
agricultural population on new territory thus leads, in turn, to a still
greater growth of the non-agricultural population.

3) The Growth of Factory and of Commercial and
Industrial Townships and Villages

In addition to the towns, the following have the significance of
industrial centres: firstly, suburbs, which are not always counted with
the towns and which are spreading in an increasing area around the big
towns; and secondly, factory townships and villages. Such industrial centres [7] are
particularly numerous in the industrial gubernias where the percentage of
urban population is extremely low. [8]

The above table containing the data, by areas, of the town population shows that in
the 9 industrial gubernias the percentage in 1863 was 7.3% and in 1897,
8.6%. The fact is that the commercial and industrial population of these
gubernias is concentrated mainly, not in towns, but in industrial
villages. Among the “towns” of Vladimir, Kostroma, Nizhni-Novgorod and other gubernias there are not a few with less than
3,000, 2,000 or even 1,000 inhabitants, where as there are numerous
“villages” in each of which there are 2,000, 3,000 or 5,000
factory workers alone. In the post-Reform period, rightly observes the
compiler of the Survey of Yaroslavl Gubernia (Vol. II.,
191),“the towns have begun to grow still faster, and in addition
there has been the growth of settlements of a new type, a type of factory
centre midway between the town and the village.” We have cited data
showing the enormous growth of these centres and the number of factory
workers concentrated in them. We have seen that there are quite a few
centres of this kind throughout Russia, not only in the industrial
gubernias, but also in the South. In the Urals the percentage of urban
population is lowest: in Vyatka and Perm gubernias it was 3.2% in 1863 and
4.7% in 1897. But here is an example of the relative size of the
“urban” and the industrial populations: in Krasnoufimsk Uyezd,
Perm Gubernia, the urban population numbers 6,400 (1897), whereas
according to the Zemstvo census of 1888-1891, the population of the industrial section of the uyezd numbers 84,700, of whom 56,000 do not
engage in agriculture at all, and only 5,600 obtain their livelihood
mainly from the land. In Ekaterinburg Uyezd, according to the Zemstvo
census, 65,000 inhabitants are landless and 81,000 have only meadow
land. Hence, the industrial non-urban population of two uyezds alone is
larger than the urban population of the whole gubernia (in 1897 it was
195,600!).

Finally, in addition to factory settlements, the significance of
industrial centres attaches to the trading and industrial villages, which
are either at the head of large handicraft districts, or have developed
rapidly since the Reform, owing to their situation on the banks of rivers,
near railway stations, etc. Several examples of such villages were given
in Chapter VI, § II, and we saw that, like the towns, they attract the
rural population, and that they are usually marked by a level of literacy
among the population above the average. [9]

As a further example let us quote data on Voronezh Gubernia in order to show
the relative importance of urban and non-urban industrial and commercial centres of
population. The Combined Returns for Voronezh Gubernia gives a
combined table classifying the villages in 8 uyezds of the gubernia. In
these uyezds there are 8 towns, with a population of 56,149 (in 1897). Of
the villages, on the other hand, 4 stand out with 9,376 households, and
with 53,732 inhabitants, i.e., they are much bigger than the towns. In 5
these villages there are 240 commercial and 404 industrial
establishments. Of the total households, 60% do not cultivate at all, 21%
cultivate by neighbour-hire or on a half-crop basis, 71% have neither
draught animals nor implements, 63% buy grain all year round, 86% engage
in industries. By placing the entire population of these centres in the
category of commercial and industrial, we not only do not exaggerate, but
rather minimise, the size of the latter, for altogether in these 8 uyezds
21,956 households cultivate no land at all. Nevertheless, in the
agricultural gubernia we have taken, the commercial and industrial
population outside the towns turns out to be not less than that inside the
towns.

4) Non-Agricultural Outside Employments

But even if we add to the towns the factory and commercial and industrial
villages and townships we are far from exhausting the total industrial
population of Russia. The lack of freedom of movement and the
social-estate exclusiveness of the village community fully explain the
remarkable characteristic of Russia that we have to include no small part
of the rural population in its industrial population, that part which
obtains its livelihood by working in industrial centres and spends part of
the year in these centres. We refer to the so-called non-agricultural
“outside employments.” From the official point of view, these
“industrialists” are peasant farmers who merely have “subsidiary employments,” and the majority of the Narodnik
economists have, without further ado, adopted that viewpoint. There is no
need, after what has been said above, to prove in detail how unsound it
is. At all events, however much opinions on it may vary, there cannot be
the slightest doubt that it indicates a diversion of the population from agriculture into commercial and industrial occupations . [10]

How far this fact changes our idea of the size of the industrial population in the towns may be seen from the following
example. In Kaluga Gubernia the percentage of urban population is much
lower than the average for Russia (8.3%, as against 12.8%). Now the
Statistical Survey of that gubernia for 1896 calculates, on the
basis of passport data, the total number of months during which migratory
workers were absent from their homes. It appears that the total is
1,491,600 months; divided by 12 this will give an absent population of
124,300 persons, i.e., “ nearly 11% of the total population ” ( loc . cit ., 46)! Add this number to the
urban population (in 1897—97,900), and the percentage of industrial
population will be a very considerable one.

Of course, a certain part of the migratory non-agricultural workers are
registered among the existing town population, and are also part of the
population of the non-urban industrial centres to which we have already
referred. But only a part, for owing to the mobile character of this
section of the population, it is difficult to cover them by any local
census; furthermore, population censuses are usually taken in the winter,
whereas most of these industrial workers leave their homes in the
spring. Here are data for some of the principal gubernias of
non-agricultural migration. [11]

The number of passports issued reaches the maximum everywhere in the
spring. Hence, a large part of the temporarily absent workers are not
included in the censuses of the towns. [12]

But these temporary town-dwellers may also more legitimately be assigned to
the urban rather than the rural population. “A family which gets its
livelihood throughout the year, or during the greater part of it, in the
town has far more reason to regard the town, which provides its
subsistence, as its place of domicile than the village, with which it has
only family and fiscal ties.” [13]

The enormous significance these fiscal ties have to this day can be seen
from the fact, for instance, that among migratory

Kostroma people “it is a rare thing for peasants to get for it [the
land] some small part of the taxes to be paid; usually they lease it on
the sole condition that the tenants put it to use, the owner himself
paying all the taxes” (D. Zhbankov, Women’s Country , Kostroma, 1891, p. 21). In the Survey of Yaroslavl Gubernia
(Vol. II, Yaroslavl, 1896), we also find repeated references to migratory
industrial workers having to purchase their release from their villages
and allotments (pp. 28, 48, 149, 150, 166 and others). [14]

How many migratory non-agricultural workers are there? The number of
people engaged in all kinds of industries employing migratory workers is
not less than from 5 to 6 millions . In fact, in 1884, about 4.67
million passports and identity cards were issued in European

Russia, [15] and passport revenue grew between 1884 and 1894 by more than one-third (from
3.3 to 4.5 million rubles). In 1897 the total number of passports and
cards issued in Russia was 9,495,700 (of which 9,333,200 were issued in
the 50 gubernias of European Russia). In 1898 the number was 8,259,900
(European Russia, 7,809,600). [16]

The number of workers superfluous (as compared with local demand) in European
Russia has been estimated by Mr. S. Korolenko at 6.3 million. Above we
have seen (Chapter III, § IX, p. 239) that in 11 agricultural gubernias
the number of passports issued exceeded Mr. Korolenko’s estimate (2
million as against 1.7 million). Now we can add the data for 6
non-agricultural gubernias: Mr. Korolenko sets the number of superfluous
workers in these at 1,287,800, while the number of passports issued was

1,298,600. [17]

Thus, in 17 gubernias of European Russia (11 black-earth, plus 6 non-black
earth) there are, according to Mr. Korolenko, 3 million workers who are
superfluous (as against the local demand). In the 90s, however, the number
of passports and cards issued in these 17 gubernias was 3.3 million. In
1891, these gubernias provided 52.2% of the total passport revenue. Hence,
the number of migratory workers in all probability exceeds 6 million . Finally, Zemstvo statistical data (most of which are
obsolete) led Mr. Uvarov to the conclusion that Mr. Korolenko’s
figure was close to the truth, and that the figure of 5 million migratory
workers was “very highly probable.” [18]

The question now arises: how large is the number of non-agricultural and
of agricultural migratory workers? Mr. N.–on very boldly and quite
mistakenly asserts that “the overwhelming majority of peasant
outside employments are agricultural” ( Sketches ,
p. 16). Chaslavsky, whom Mr. N.–on cites, expresses himself much more
cautiously; he cites no data and limits himself to general remarks about
the size of the areas which provide workers of one type or another. On the
other hand, Mr. N.–on’s railway passenger traffic data prove
absolutely nothing, for non-agricultural workers also leave their homes
mainly in spring and, moreover, use the railways much more than
agricultural workers do. [19]

We presume, on the contrary, that the majority (although not the
“overwhelming” majority) of the migratory workers are probably
non-agricultural workers. This view is based, firstly, on data concerning
the distribution of passport revenue, and, secondly, on Mr. Vesin’s
data. Years ago Flerovsky, on the basis of the returns for 1862-63 showing
the distribution of revenue from “miscellaneous duties” (more
than one-third of which was obtained from the issue of passports), drew
the conclusion that the greatest movement of peasants in search of work
was from the metropolitan and the non-agricultural gubernias. [20]

If
we take the 11 non-agricultural gubernias which we combined above (part 2
of this section) into a single area, and which non-agricultural workers
leave in large numbers, we shall see that these gubernias in 1885
contained only 18.7% of the population of all European Russia (in
1897— 18.3%), whereas they accounted for 42.9% of the passport
revenue in 1885 (in

1891—40.7%). [21]

Non-agricultural workers are provided by very many other gubernias, and we must there fore conclude that agricultural
workers constitute less than half of the migrants. Mr. Vesin divides 38
gubernias of European Russia (which account for 90% of the departure permits) into groups according to the different types of migration that
predominate, and obtains the following results. [22] “These figures show that industries employing migratory workers are
more prevalent in the first group than in the third. . . . These figures
also show that there is a diversity in the duration of absence to secure employment corresponding to
the difference in the groups. Where non-agricultural industries employing
migratory workers predominate, the length of absence is much
greater” ( Dyelo , 1886, No. 7, p. 134).

Finally, the statistics given above for excise-paying trades, etc., enable
us to classify the residential permits issued in all the 50 gubernias of
European Russia. Making the indicated corrections to Mr. Vesin’s
classification, and distributing among these same groups the 12 gubernias
for which figures are lacking for 1884 (Olonets and Pskov gubernias to
group I; the 9 Baltic and North-West gubernias to group II; and Astrakhan
Gubernia to group III), we get the following picture:

Migration for work away from home, according to these data, is much more
prevalent in group I than in group III.

Thus, there can be no doubt that the mobility of the population is far
greater in Russia’s non-agricultural zone than in the agricultural. The number of non-agricultural migratory workers must be
greater than that of the agricultural, and must be not less than three million .

The enormous and ever-increasing growth of migration is confirmed by all
sources. Passport revenue increased from 2.1 million rubles in 1868 (1.75 million rubles in 1866) to 4.5
million rubles in 1893-94, i.e., it more than doubled. The number of
passports and identity cards issued increased in Moscow Gubernia between
1877 and 1885 by 20% (males) and 53% (females); in Tver Gubernia, between
1893 and 1896 by 5.6%, in Kaluga Gubernia, between 1885 and 1895 by 23%
(and the number of months of absence by 26%); in Smolensk Gubernia, from
100,000 in 1875 to 117,000 in 1885 and 140,000 in 1895; in Pskov Gubernia,
from 11,716 in 1865-1875 to 14,944 in 1876 and to 43,765 in 1896
(males). In Kostroma Gubernia, in 1868, 23.8 passports and cards per 100
males were issued and 0.85 per 100 females, and in 1880—33.1 and
2.2. And so on and so forth.

Like the diversion of the population from agriculture to the towns,
non-agricultural migration is a progressive phenomenon . It tears
the population out of the neglected, backward, history-forgotten remote
spots and draws them into the whirlpool of modern social life. It
increases literacy among the population, [24] heightens their understanding, [25] and gives them civilised habits and requirements. [26]

The peasants are induced to migrate by “motives of a higher
order,” i.e., by the greater smartness and polish of the
Petersburger; they look for places where “things are better.”
“Life and work in Petersburg are considered to be easier than in the country.” [27] “All country-folk are called raw, and the strange thing is that they
are not in the least offended at this, but refer to themselves as such and
complain that their parents did not send them to St. Petersburg to
study. It should be stated, however, that these raw country
people are not nearly so raw as those in the purely agricultural
districts; they unconsciously copy the outward appearance and the habits
of the Petersburgers; the light of the metropolis falls indirectly on them.” [28]

In
Yaroslavl Gubernia (apart from examples of people growing rich)
“there is still another cause which drives everyone from his
home. That is—public opinion, which dubs a bumpkin to the end of his
days anybody who has not lived in Peters burg, or somewhere else, but
engages in agriculture or some handicraft, and such a man finds it hard to
get a wife” ( Survey of Yaroslavl Gubernia , II, 118). Migration to the town elevates the peasant as a citizen, releasing
him from the host of patriarchal and personal relationships of dependence
and social-estate divisions so strongly entrenched in the rural districts.... [29] “A prime factor that fosters migration is the growing sense of human
dignity among the people. Liberation from serf dependence, and the
long-standing association of the more active section of the rural
population with town life, have long since roused the desire in the
Yaroslavl peasant to uphold his ‘ego,’ to get away from the
state of poverty and dependence to which rural life has doomed him, to a
state of sufficiency, independence and respect. . . . The peasant who
lives on outside earnings feels freer and more on a level of equality with
people belonging to other social estates, which is why the rural youth are so eager to go to the town” ( Survey of Yaroslavl Gubernia , II, 189-190).

Migration to the towns loosens the old patriarchal family ties and places
women in a more independent position, on an equal footing with
men. “Compared with those in the localities of no migration, the
families of Soligalich and Chukhloma” (the uyezds of Kostroma
Gubernia where migration is greatest) “are much less closely knit,
not only in the sense of the patriarchal authority of the older, but even
in the relations between parents and children, husband and wife. One
cannot, of course, expect strong affection for their parents and
attachment to the parental home from sons who are sent to Petersburg from
the age of 12; unconsciously they become cosmopolitans: ‘where it is
well, there is my country.’” [30] “Accustomed to dispense with the authority
and assistance of her husband, the Soligalich woman is quite unlike the
downtrodden peasant woman of the agricultural zone: she is independent and
self-reliant. . . . Wife-beating is a rare exception here. . . . Generally
speaking, equality between women and men is to be observed almost
everywhere and in all things.” [31]

Last but not least, [32] non-agricultural migration raises the
wages not only of the wage-workers who migrate but also of those
who stay behind.

This fact is most strikingly reflected in the general circumstance that
the non-agricultural gubernias where wages are higher than in the
agricultural gubernias, attract agricultural workers from the latter. [33]

Here are some interesting data for Kaluga Gubernia:

“These figures fully illustrate the phenomena . . . 1) that
migration for work in industry helps to raise wages in agriculture, and 2)
that it attracts the best forces of the population.” [34]

Not only money wages, but real wages also rise. In the group of uyezds from which not fewer than 60 out of every 100
working people migrate the average wage of the farm labourer employed by
the year is 69 rubles, or 123 poods of rye; in the uyezds where from 40 to
60% migrate, it is 64 rubles, or 125 poods of rye; in the uyezds which
supply less than 40% of the migrants, it is 59 rubles, or 116 poods of rye. [35]

In these same groups of uyezds the percentage of letters of complaint about a
shortage of labour steadily drops: 58%, 42% and 35%. In manufacturing
industry wages are higher than in agriculture, and “the industries,
according to the statements of numerous correspondents, help to develop
new requirements (tea, calico, boots, clocks, etc.) among the peasant
population, raise their general standard of living, and in this way bring
about a rise in wages.” [36]

Here is a typical view by a correspondent: “The shortage [of labour]
is always acute, and the reason is that the suburban population is spoilt,
it works in the railway workshops and serves on the railways. The nearness
of Kaluga and its markets always attract the surrounding inhabitants, who
come to sell eggs, milk, etc., and then engage in orgies of drunkenness in
the taverns; the reason is that everybody wants to get the highest pay for
the least work. To be an agricultural labourer is considered a
disgrace : all strive to get to the town, where they swell the
ranks of the proletariat and the riff-raff; the countryside, on the other
hand, suffers from a shortage of capable and healthy labourers.” [37]

We would be quite justified in describing this appraisal of industries employing migratory workers as
Narodist . Mr. Zhbankov, for instance, while pointing out that
those who migrate are not superfluous but “necessary” workers
whose places are taken by entering peasants, considers it
“obvious” that “such mutual replacements are very disadvantageous.” [38]

For whom, dear Mr. Zhbankov? “Life in the capitals cultivates many civilised habits of the lower order and
an inclination to luxury and showiness, and this results in a useless
( sic !!) waste of money” [39] ; the expenditure on this showiness, etc., is largely “unproductive” (!!) [40]

Mr. Hertzenstein positively howls about the “sham culture,” “the riotous living,” “wild
carousing,” “orgies of drunkenness and filthy debauchery,” etc. [41]

From the fact of wholesale migration the Moscow statisticians draw the outright
conclusion that it is necessary to take “measures that would
diminish the need for migratory labour.” [42]

Mr. Karyshev argues about migratory labour as follows: “Only an
increase in the peasants’ holdings to a size sufficient to provide
the main (!) requirements of their families can solve this most serious
problem of our national economy.” [43]

And it does not occur to any of these serene-spirited gentlemen that
before talking about “solving most serious problems,” one must
see to it that the peasants obtain complete freedom of movement, freedom
to give up their land and leave the community, freedom to settle (without
having

to pay “riddance” money) in any community, urban or rural,
whatsoever!

And so the diversion of the population from agriculture is expressed, in
Russia, in the growth of the towns (a growth partly obscured by home
colonisation), suburbs, factory and commercial and industrial villages and
townships, as well as in non-agricultural migration. All these processes,
which have been and are rapidly developing in breadth and depth in the
post-Reform period, are necessary components of capitalist development and
are profoundly progressive as compared with the old forms of life.

---
Notes:
[1]
For 1863 the figures are from the Statistical Chronicle (I, 1866)
and the Military Statistical Abstract . The figures of the urban
population of the Orenburg and Ufa gubernias have been corrected according
to the tables of towns. That is why our figure for the total urban
population is 6,105,100 and not 6,087,100 as given in the Military Statistical Abstract .—For 1885 the data are from Returns for Russia for 1884-85 .—For 1897 the figures are those of the
returns of the census of January 28, 1897. ( First General Census of the Population of the Russian Empire , 1897, Central Statistical
Committee, St. Petersburg, 1897 and 1898, Pts. 1 and 2.) The permanent
urban population, according to the 1897 census, was 11,830,500, i.e.,
12.55%. We have taken the existing population of the towns.—Let us
observe that we cannot vouch for the figures for 1863, 1885 and 1897 being
absolutely uniform and comparable. For that reason we limit our comparison
to the most general proportions and give the data for the big towns
separately.— Lenin

[2]
“The number of urban settlements of an agricultural character is
extremely small and the number of their inhabitants is quite insignificant
compared with the total number of town-dwellers.” (Mr Grigoryev in
The Influence of Harvests and Grain Prices , Vol. II; p. 126.)— Lenin

[3]
Novoye Slovo , June 1897, p. 113.— Lenin

[4]
Mr. Grigoryev gives a table (loc, cit., 140) which shows that in 1885 of
all towns 85.6% had less than 20,000 inhabitants each; 38% of all
town-dwellers were living in them; 12.4% of the towns (82 out of 660) had
less than 2,000 inhabitants each, and only 1.1% of all town-dwellers
(110,000 out of 9,962,000) were living in them.— Lenin

[5]
That we are right in combining with the metropolitan gubernias the
non-agricultural gubernias taken by us is borne out by the fact that the
population of the metropolitan cities is augmented chiefly by migrants
from these gubernias. According to the Petersburg census of December
15,1890, there were in that city 726,000 members of the peasant and the
burgher estates, of these, 544,000 (i.e., three fourths) were members of
the peasant and the burgher estates from the 11 gubernias out of which we
constituted area No. 1.— Lenin

[6]
Loc . cit ., p. 109. “This movement has no parallel in the modern history of Western Europe” (110-111).— Lenin

[7]
See above, Chapter VII, § VIII, and Appendix III to Chapter VII.— Lenin

[8]
On the significance of this circumstance, to which Korsak in his day drew
attention, compare the just remarks of Mr. Volgin ( loc . cit ., pp. 215-216).— Lenin

[9]
How numerous in Russia are villages that constitute very big centres of
population may be judged from the following (though obsolete) data of the
Military Statistical Abstract : in 25 gubernias of European
Russia there were in the 60s a total of 1,334 villages with over 2,000
inhabitants each. Of them, 108 had from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, 6
from 10,000 to 15,000, 1 from 15,000 to 20,000 and 1 over 20,000
(p. 169). The development of capitalism in all countries, not only in
Russia, has led to the rise of new industrial centres not officially
classified as towns. “Differences between town and country are
obliterated, near growing industrial towns this takes place due to the
removal of industrial enterprises and workers’ dwellings to the
suburbs and outskirts of the towns; near declining small towns it takes
place due to the merging of the latter with the surrounding villages and
also to the development of large industrial villages. . . . Differences
between the urban and rural populated areas are eliminated due to numerous
transitional formations. Statisticians have recognised this long ago, and
instead of the historico-juridical concept of the town have adopted the
statistical concept, which distinguishes centres of population solely
according to the number of inhabitants” (B\"ucher, Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft , T\"ubingen, 1893, S. 296-297 and 303-304). In this
respect also Russian statistics lag far behind European statistics. In
Germany and in France ( Statesman’s Yearbook , pp. 536, 474)
under towns are placed centres of population having more than 2,000
inhabitants, and in England “net urban sanitary districts,”
i.e., also factory villages, etc. Hence, Russian data on the
“urban” population are not at all comparable with European.— Lenin

[10]
Mr. N.–on has not noticed at all in Russia the process of the
industrialisation of the population! Mr. V. V. observed it and admitted
that the growth of migration expresses a diversion of the population from
agriculture ( The Destiny of Capitalism , 149); however, far from
including this process in the sum-total of his views on the “destiny
of capitalism,” he tried to hush it up with lamentations about the
point that “there are people who find all this very natural”
(for capitalist society? Can Mr. V. V. imagine capitalism without this
phenomenon?) “and almost desirable” ( ibid .). It is desirable without the “almost,” Mr. V. V.!— Lenin

[11]
Residential Permits Issued to the Peasant Population of Moscow Gubernia in 1880 and 1885 .— Statistical Yearbook of Tver Gubernia for 1897 .—Zhbankov: Industries Employing Migratory Workers in Smolensk Gubernia , Smolensk, 1896.—Same
author’s: The Influence of Industries Employing Migratory Workers , etc ., Kostroma, 1887.— Industries of the Peasant Population of Pskov Gubernia , Pskov, 1898.—Mistakes in
the percentages for Moscow Gubernia could not be corrected because there
were no absolute figures.—For

Kostroma Gubernia only uyezd figures are available, and then only in percentages. We had, therefore, to take
the average of the uyezd figures, and for this reason we give the data for
Kostroma Gubernia separately. As regards Yaroslavl Gubernia, it is
estimated that of the migratory industrialists 68.7% are absent all year
round: 12.6% in the autumn and winter, and 18.7% in the spring and
summer. We would observe that the data for Yaroslavl Gubernia ( Survey of Yaroslavl Gubernia , Vol. II, Yaroslavl, 1896) are not comparable
with the preceding ones, since they are based on the statements of
priests, etc., and not on passport data.— Lenin

[12]
It is known, for instance, that in the suburbs of St. Petersburg the
population increases very considerably in the summer.— Lenin

[13]
Statistical Survey of Kaluga Gubernia for 1896 , Kaluga, 1897,
p. in Sec. II.— Lenin

[14]
“Industries employing migratory workers . . . are a form that
obscures the uninterrupted growth of the towns. . . . Communal land tenure
and various peculiarities of the financial and administrative life of
Russia do not allow the peasant to become a town-dweller as easily as in
the West. . . . Legal threads sustain his (the migratory worker’s)
tie with the village, but actually by occupation, habits and tastes he has
become completely assimilated with the town and often regards this tie
with his village as irksome” ( Russkaya Mysl , 1896, No. 11,
p. 227). That is very true, but for a publicist is not enough. Why did not
the author declare definitely for complete freedom of movement, for the
freedom of the peasant to leave the village community? Our liberals are
still afraid of our Narodniks. But they have no reason to be.

And here, for purposes of comparison, are the views of a sympathiser with
Narodism, Mr. Zhbankov: “Migration to the towns is, as it were, a
lightning conductor ( sic !) against the rapid growth of the
capitals and big cities and the increase of the urban and landless
proletariat. Both from the sanitary and from the social and economic
points of view, this influence of industries employing migratory workers
should be regarded as beneficial: so long as the masses of the people are
not completely divorced from the land, which provides the migratory
workers with some security” (a “security” they pay money
to break with!), “these workers cannot become the blind instruments
of capitalist production, and the hope remains of organising
agricultural-industrial communes” ( Yuridichesky Vestnik ,
1890, No. 9 p 145). Is not the retention of petty-bourgeois hopes really
beneficial? As for “ blind instruments,” the experience of Europe and all the facts observed in Russia show that this
description is far more applicable to the worker who retains his ties with
the land and with patriarchal relationships than to the one who has broken
these ties. The figures and facts given by Mr. Zhbankov himself show that
the migratory “Petersburger” is more literate, cultured and
developed than the settled Kostromer in some “backwoods”
uyezd.— Lenin

[15]
L. Vesin, The Significance of Industries Employing Migratory Workers , etc ., Dyelo ( Business ), 1886,
No. 7, and 1887, No. 2.— Lenin

[16]
Statistics of Excise-Paying Trades , etc ., for 1897-1898,
St. Petersburg, 1900. Published by Head Office of Non-Assessed Taxes
Department.— Lenin

[17]
Gubernias: Moscow (1885, obsolete data), Tver (1896), Kostroma (1892),
Smolensk (1895), Kaluga (1895), Pskov (1896). The sources have been
indicated above. The data refer to all departure permits, male and female.— Lenin

[18]
Vestnik obshchestvennoi gigieny , sudebnoi i prakticheskoi meditsiny ( Journal of Public Hygiene and of Forensic and Practical Medicine ), July, 1896. M. Uvarov: The Influence of Industry Employing Migratory Workers on the Sanitary Conditions of Russia . M. Uvarov gathered the data for 126 uyezds of 20 gubernias.— Lenin

[19]
Cf. above, p. 239, footnote.— Lenin

[20]
The Condition of the Working Class in Russia , St. Petersburg,
1869, p. 400 and foll.— Lenin

[21]
Data on passport revenue taken from Returns for Russia for
1884-85 and for 1896. In 1885, passport revenue in European Russia
amounted to 37 rubles per 1,000 inhabitants; in the 11 non-agricultural
gubernias it was 86 rubles per 1,000 inhabitants.— Lenin

[22]
The last two columns in the table have been added by us. Group 1 includes
the following gubernias: Archangel, Vladimir, Vologda Vyatka, Kaluga,
Kostroma, Moscow, Novgorod, Perm, St. Petersburg, Tver, Yaroslavl; group
II: Kazan, Nizhni-Novgorod, Ryazan, Tula, Smolensk; group III: Bessarabia,
Volhynia, Voronezh, Ekaterinoslav, Don, Kiev, Kursk, Orenburg, Orel,
Penza, Podolsk, Poltava, Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk, Taurida, Tambov, Ufa,
Kharkov, Kherson, Chernigov.—We must mention that this classification contains some inaccuracies exaggerating the proportion of
migration for agricultural work. The gubernias of Smolensk,
Nizhni-Novgorod and Tula should be included in group I (cf. Agricultural Survey of Nizhni-Novgorod Gubernia for 1896 ,
Chapter XI— Tula Gubernia Handbook for 1895 , Section VI,
p. 10: the number of persons leaving for work away from their homes is
given as 188,000—but Mr. Korolenko calculated that there were only
50,000 superfluous workers!—the 6 northern, non-black-earth uyezds
accounting for 107,000 migrants.) Kursk Gubernia should be included in
group II (S. Korolenko, loc . cit .: from 7 uyezds the majority leave for handicraft, and from the remaining 8 all leave for
agricultural industries). Unfortunately, Mr. Vesin does not give the
number, by gubernias, of departure permits issued.— Lenin

[23]
* Incidentally, the author of the survey of these data
( loc . cit ., Chapter VI, p. 639) ascribes the decrease in
the number of passports issued in 1898 to the drop in the migration of
summer workers to the southern gubernias resulting from the bad harvest
and the widespread use of machinery in agriculture. This explanation is of
no value whatever, since the number of residential permits issued declined
least in group III and most in group I. Are the methods of registration in
1897 and in 1898 comparable? ( Note to 2nd edition .)— Lenin

[24]
Zhbankov: The Influence of Industries Employing Migratory Workers , etc ., p. 36 and foll. The percentage of literate
males in the uyezds of Kostroma Gubernia from which there is migration is
55.9%; in the factory uyezds, 34.9%, in the settled (forest) uyezds,
25.8%; of literate females: 3.5%, 2.0% and 1.3%; school children: 1.44%,
1.43%, and 1.07%. Children in uyezds from which there is migration also
attend school in St. Petersburg.— Lenin

[25]
“The literate Petersburgers take a positively better and more
intelligent attitude to medical treatment” ( ibid ., 34), so
that infectious diseases are not so fatal among them as in the
“ little-cultured ” volosts (author’s italics).— Lenin

[26]
“The uyezds from which there is migration are much superior to the
agricultural and forest localities in the arrangement of their
lives. . . . The clothes of the Petersburgers are much cleaner, smarter
and more hygienic. . . . The children are kept cleaner, and that is why
the itch and other skin diseases are not so frequent among them”
( ibid ., 39. Cf. Industries Employing Migratory Workers in Smolensk Gubernia , p. 8). “The villages from which there is
migration differ considerably from those from which there is none: houses,
clothes, habits and amusements remind one more of town than of village
life” ( Industries Employing Migratory Workers in Smolensk Gubernia , p. 3). In the volosts of Kostroma Gubernia from which there
is migration “you find paper, ink, pencils and pens in half the
houses” ( Women’s Country , 67-68).— Lenin

[27]
Women’s Country , 26-27, 15.— Lenin

[28]
Ibid ., p. 27.— Lenin

[29]
For example, the Kostroma peasants are prompted to become registered as
burghers, among other things by possible “corporal punishment,” which is “even more awful to the flashy
Petersburger than to the raw country dweller” ( ibid ., 58).— Lenin

[30]
Ibid ., 88.— Lenin

[31]
Yuridichesky Vestnik , 1890, No. 9, p. 142.— Lenin

[32]
This expression is in English in the original.— Ed .

[33]
Cf. Chapter IV, § IV, pp. 270-271.— Lenin

[34]
Statistical Survey of Kaluga Gubernia for 1896 , Sec. II, p. 48.— Lenin

[35]
Ibid ., Sec. I, p. 27.— Lenin

[36]
Ibid ., p. 41.— Lenin

[37]
Ibid ., p. 40, author’s italics.— Lenin

[38]
Women’s Country , 39 and 8. “Will not these genuine peasants (newly-entered) exert a sobering influence, by the prosperous
life they lead, upon the native population, who regard not the land but
employment away from home as their main source of livelihood?” (p
40). “Incidentally,” remarks the author sadly, “we have
already cited an example of the opposite influence.” Here is the
example. Vologda folk bought land and lived “very prosperously.” “In reply to the question I put to one of them
as to why, though well-off, he let his son go to St. Petersburg, he said:
‘It’s true we are not poor, but life is very dull here, and my
son, seeing others go, wanted to get educated himself; at home too he was
the one with knowledge’” (p. 25). Poor Narodniks! How can they
help deploring the fact that even the example of well-to-do,
land-purchasing muzhik farmer cannot “sober” the youth, who,
in their desire to “get educated,” flee from the “allotment that secures them their livelihood”!— Lenin

[39]
The Influence of Industries Employing Migratory Workers ,
etc ., 33, author’s italics.— Lenin

[40]
Yuridichesky Vestnik , 1890, No. 9, 138.— Lenin

[41]
Russkaya Mysl (not Russky Vestnik , but Russkaya Mysl ), [45]
1887, No. 9, p. 163.— Lenin

[42]
Residential Permits , etc ., p. 7.— Lenin

[43]
Russkoye Bogatstvo , 1896, No. 7, p. 18. So then, the “main” requirements are to be met by the allotment, and the
rest apparently by “local employments” secured in the “countryside,” which “suffers from a shortage of capable
and healthy labourers”!— Lenin

[44]
Karl Marx, Capital , Vol. III, Moscow, 1959, p. 622. [p. 562]

[45]
In the 1890s Russkaya Mysl was a liberal publication and
Russky Vestnik , a magazine expressing the reactionary view.
[p. 580]